Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon by Robert Armitage Sterndale

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Natural History of the Mammalia of India
and Ceylon, by Robert A. Sterndale

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon

Author: Robert A. Sterndale

Release Date: October 16, 2006 [EBook #19550]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ASCII

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALIA OF INDIA ***




Produced by Ron Swanson





[Frontispiece: FELIS TIGRIS.]




NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA AND CEYLON.

BY

ROBERT A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., &C.,
AUTHOR OF "THE DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLE;" "THE AFGHAN KNIFE;"
"SEONEE, OR CAMP LIFE IN THE SATPURA RANGE," ETC.

WITH 170 ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR, T. W. WOOD, AND OTHERS.




CALCUTTA: THACKER, SPINK, AND CO.
BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO., LIMITED.
LONDON: W. THACKER AND CO.
1884.




LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.




THIS POPULAR HISTORY OF OUR INDIAN MAMMALS IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
(BY PERMISSION) TO ONE WHO TAKES A DEEP INTEREST IN ALL THAT CONCERNS
OUR EASTERN EMPIRE, THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF NORTHBROOK, G.C.S.I.,
LATE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AND VICEROY OF INDIA.




PREFACE.


This work is designed to meet an existing want, viz.: a popular manual
of Indian Mammalia. At present the only work of the kind is one which
treats exclusively of the Peninsula of India, and which consequently
omits the more interesting types found in Assam, Burmah, and Ceylon,
as well as the countries bordering the British Indian Empire on the
North. The geographical limits of the present work have been extended
to all territories likely to be reached by the sportsman from India,
thus greatly enlarging the field of its usefulness.

The stiff formality of the compiled "Natural Histories" has been
discarded, and the Author has endeavoured to present, in interesting
conversational and often anecdotal style, the results of experience
by himself and his personal friends; at the same time freely availing
himself of all the known authorities upon the subject.




CONTENTS.


NO. PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1

ORDER BIMANA 3

ORDER QUADRUMANA 7

Genus Hylobates--The Gibbons--

1. Hylobates hooluck (_White-fronted Gibbon_) 8
2. " lar (_White-handed Gibbon_) 11
3. " syndactylus (_Siamang_) 12

Genus Presbytes--Cuvier's Genus Semnopithecus--

4. Semnopithecus _vel_ Presbytes entellus (_Bengal Langur_) 14
5. " _vel_ P. schistaceus (_Himalayan Langur_) 16
6. " _vel_ P. priamus (_Madras Langur_) 16
7. " _vel_ P. Johnii (_Malabar Langur_) 17
8. " _vel_ P. jubatus (_Nilgheri Langur_) 18
9. " _vel_ P. pileatus (_Capped Langur_) 18
10. " _vel_ P. Barbei (_Tipperah Langur_) 19
11. " _vel_ P. Phayrei (_Silvery-Leaf Monkey_) 19
12. " _vel_ P. obscurus (_Dusky-Leaf Monkey_) 20
13. " _vel_ P. cephalopterus (_Ceylon Langur_) 20
14. " _vel_ P. ursinus (_Great Wanderu_) 21
15. " _vel_ P. thersites 22
16. " _vel_ P. albinus (_White Langur_) 23

SUB-FAMILY PAPIONINAE 24

Genus Inuus--

17. Inuus _vel_ Macacus silenus (_Lion Monkey_) 24
18. " _vel_ M. rhesus (_Bengal Monkey_) 25
19. " _vel_ M. pelops (_Hill Monkey_) 26
20. " _vel_ M. nemestrinus (_Pig-tailed Monkey_) 26
21. " _vel_ M. leoninus (_Long-haired Pig-tailed Monkey_) 27
22. " _vel_ M. arctoides (_Brown Stump-tailed Monkey_) 28
23. " _vel_ M. Thibetanus (_Thibetan Stump-tailed Monkey_) 28

Genus Macacus--

24. Macacus radiatus (_Madras Monkey_) 28
25. " pileatus (_Capped Monkey_) 29
26. " cynomolgus (_Crab-eating Macacque_) 30
27. " carbonarius (_Black-faced Crab-eating Monkey_) 31

FAMILY LEMURIDAE 31

Genus Nycticebus--

28. Nycticebus tardigradus (_Slow-paced Lemur_) 31

Genus Loris--

29. Loris gracilis (_Slender Lemur_) 33

SUB-ORDER PLEUROPTERA--FAMILY GALAEOPITHECIDAE 33

Genus Galaeopithecus--

30. Galaeopithecus volans (_Flying Lemur_) 34

ORDER CARNARIA 35

CHEIROPTERA 35

MEGACHIROPTERA--SUB-FAMILY PTEROPODIDAE 36

Genus Pteropus--

31. Pteropus Edwardsii _vel_ medius (_Common Flying Fox_) 37
32. " Leschenaultii (Cynonycteris amplexicaudata)
(_Fulvous Fox-Bat_) 40

Genus Cynopterus--

33. Cynopterus marginatus (_Small Fox-Bat_) 40
34. Macroglossus (Pteropus) minimus (_Tenasserim Fox-Bat_) 41

Genus Eonycteris--

35. Eonycteris spelaea 41

MICROCHIROPTERA--SUB-FAMILY VAMPYRIDAE 42

Genus Megaderma--

36. Megaderma lyra (_Large-eared Vampire Bat_) 42
37. " spectrum (_Cashmere Vampire_) 43
38. " spasma 43

RHINOLOPHINAE 44

Genus Rhinolophus--

39. Rhinolophus perniger _vel_ luctus (_Large Leaf-Bat_) 44
40. " mitratus (_Mitred Leaf-Bat_) 44
41. " tragatus _vel_ ferrum-equinum (_Dark-brown
Leaf-Bat_) 45
42. " Pearsonii (_Pearson's Leaf-Bat_) 46
43. " affinis (_Allied Leaf-Bat_) 46
44. " rouxi (_Rufous Leaf-Bat_) 46
45. " macrotis (_Large-eared Leaf-Bat_) 47
46. " sub-badius (_Bay Leaf-Bat_) 47
47. " rammanika 47
48. " Andamanensis 48
49. " minor 48
50. " coelophyllus 48
51. " Garoensis 48
52. " Petersii 49
53. " trifoliatus 49

Genus Hipposideros _vel_ Phyllorhina--

54. Hipposideros armiger (_Large Horse-shoe Bat_) 50
55. " speoris (_Indian Horse-shoe Bat_) 50
56. " murinus (_Little Horse-shoe Bat_) 51
57. " cineraceus (_Ashy Horse-shoe Bat_) 51
58. " larvatus 51
59. " vulgaris (_Common Malayan Horse-shoe Bat_) 52
60. " Blythii 52
61. Phyllorhina diadema 52
62. " Masoni 53
63. " Nicobarensis 53
64. " armigera 53
65. " leptophylla 54
66. " galerita 54
67. " bicolor 55

Genus Coelops--

68. Coelops Frithii (_Frith's Tailless Bat_) 55

Genus Rhinopoma--

69. Rhinopoma Hardwickii (_Hardwick's Long-tailed Leaf-Bat_) 56

SUB-FAMILY NOCTILIONIDAE 56

Genus Taphozous--

70. Taphozous longimanus (_Long-armed Bat_) 57
71. " melanopogon (_Black-bearded Bat_) 57
72. " saccolaimus (_White-bellied Bat_) 58
73. " Theobaldi 58
74. " Kachhensis 58

Genus Nyctinomus--

75. Nyctinomus plicatus (_Wrinkle-lipped Bat_) 59
76. " tragatus 59

SUB-FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE 60

Genus Plecotus--

77. Plecotus auritus _vel_ homochrous 60

Genus Vesperugo--

78. Vesperugo noctula 61
79. " leucotis 61
80. " maurus 62
81. " affinis 62
82. " pachyotis 62
83. " atratus 62
84. " Tickelli 63
85. " pachypus 63
86. " annectans 63
87. " dormeri 63
88. (Vesperugo) Scotophilus serotinus (_Silky Bat_) 63
89. " " Leisleri (_Hairy-armed Bat_) 64
Scotophilus pachyomus 64
90. (Vesperugo) Scotophilus Coromandelianus (_Coromandel Bat_) 64
91. " " lobatus (_Lobe-eared Bat_) 65

Genus Scotophilus--

92. Scotophilus fuliginosus (_Smoky Bat_) 65
93. " Temminckii 65
94. " Heathii 66
95. " emarginatus 66
96. " ornatus 66
97. " pallidus 67
Noctulinia noctula 67
Nycticejus Heathii (_Large Yellow Bat_) 67
" luteus (_Bengal Yellow Bat_) 67
" Temminckii (_Common Yellow Bat_) 67
" castaneus (_Chestnut Bat_) 67
" atratus (_Sombre Bat_) 67
" canus (_Hoary Bat_) 67
" ornatus (_Harlequin Bat_) 68
98. " nivicolus (_Alpine Bat_) 68

Genus Harpiocephalus--

99. Harpiocephalus harpia 69
100. " (Murina) suillus (_The Pig-Bat_) 69
101. " auratus 70
102. " griseus 70
103. " leucogaster 70
104. " cyclotis 70

Genus Kerivoula--

105. Kerivoula picta (_Painted Bat_) 71
" pallida 72
106. " papillosa 72
107. " Hardwickii 72

Genus Vespertilio--

108. Myotis (Vespertilio) murinus 73
109. " Theobaldi 73
110. " parvipes 73
111. Vespertilio longipes 73
112. " mystacinus 73
113. " muricola 73
114. " montivagus 74
115. " murinoides 74
116. " formosus 74
117. " Nepalensis 74
118. " emarginatus 75

Genus Miniopterus--

119. Miniopterus Schreibersii 76

Genus Barbastellus--

120. Barbastellus communis 76
121. Nyctophilus Geoffroyi 76

INSECTIVORA 77

FAMILY TALPIDAE--THE MOLES 79

Genus Talpa--

122. Talpa micrura (_Short-tailed Mole_) 81
123. " macrura (_Long-tailed Mole_) 81
124. " leucura (_White-tailed Mole_) 81

FAMILY SORECIDAE 82

Genus Sorex--

125. Sorex caerulescens (_Common Musk Shrew, better known as
Musk-rat_) 83
126. " murinus (_Mouse-coloured Shrew_) 85
127. " nemorivagus (_Nepal Wood Shrew_) 85
128. " serpentarius (_Rufescent Shrew_) 85
129. " saturatior (_Dark-brown Shrew_) 86
130. " Tytleri (_Dehra Shrew_) 86
131. " niger (_Neilgherry Wood Shrew_) 86
132. " leucops (_Long-tailed Shrew_) 87
133. " soccatus (_Hairy-footed Shrew_) 87
134. " montanus (_Ceylon Black Shrew_) 87
135. " ferrugineus (_Ceylon Rufescent Shrew_) 87
136. " Griffithi (_Large Black Shrew_) 88
137. " heterodon 88

Genus Feroculus--

138. Feroculus macropus (_Large-footed Shrew_) 88
139. Sorex Hodgsoni (_Nepal Pigmy-Shrew_) 88
140. " Perroteti (_Neilgherry Pigmy-Shrew_) 89
141. " micronyx (_Small-clawed Pigmy-Shrew_) 89
142. " melanodon (_Black-toothed Pigmy-Shrew_) 89
143. " nudipes (_Naked-footed Shrew_) 89
144. " atratus (_Black Pigmy-Shrew_) 89

Sub-genus Soriculus--

145. Soriculus nigrescens (_Mouse-tailed Shrew_) 90

Genus Crossopus--

146. Crossopus Himalaicus (_Himalayan Water-Shrew_) 90

Genus Nyctogale--

147. Nyctogale elegans (_Thibet Water-Shrew_) 92

Genus Corsira--

148. Corsira Alpina (_Alpine Shrew_) 92

Genus Anurosorex--

149. Anurosorex Assamensis (_Assam Burrowing Shrew_) 93

FAMILY ERINACEIDAE--THE HEDGEHOGS 93

Genus Erinaceus--

150. Erinaceus collaris (_Collared Hedgehog_) 96
151. " micropus (_Small-footed Hedgehog_) 96
152. " pictus (_Painted Hedgehog_) 97
153. " Grayi 97
154. " Blanfordi 97
155. " Jerdoni 97
156. " megalotis (_Large-eared Hedgehog_) 98

FAMILY HYLOMIDAE 99

Genus Hylomys--

157. Hylomys Peguensis (_Short-tailed Tree-Shrew_) 99

FAMILY TUPAIIDAE 99

Genus Tupaia--

158. Tupaia Ellioti (_Elliot's Tree-Shrew_) 101
159. " Peguana _vel_ Belangeri (_Pegu Tree-Shrew_) 101
160. " Chinensis 103
161. " Nicobarica 103
162. Gymnura Rafflesii (_Bulau_) 104

CARNIVORA 105

ARCTOIDEA--PLANTIGRADA 108

URSIDAE 108

Genus Ursus--

163. Ursus Isabellinus (_Himalayan Brown Bear_) 111
164. " (Helarctos) torquatus _vel_ Tibetanus
(_Himalayan Black Bear_) 113
165. " (Helarctos) gedrosianus (_Baluchistan Bear_) 116
166. " " Malayanus (_Bruang or Malayan Sun Bear_) 116
167. " (Melursus) labiatus (_Common Indian Sloth Bear_) 118

AILURIDAE 123

Genus Ailuropus--

168. Ailuropus melanoleucos 124

Genus Ailurus--

169. Ailurus fulgens (_Red Cat-Bear_) 128

SEMI-PLANTIGRADES 130

MELIDIDAE; OR, BADGER-LIKE ANIMALS 130

Genus Arctonyx--

170. Arctonyx collaris (_Hog-Badger_) 131
171. " taxoides (_Assam Badger_) 132

Genus Meles (Sub-genus Taxidia)--

172. Meles (Taxidia) leucurus (_Thibetan White-tailed Badger_) 133
173. " albogularis (_White-throated Thibetan Badger_) 134

Genus Mellivora--

174. Mellivora Indica (_Indian Ratel or Honey-Badger_) 134

Genus Gulo--The Glutton or Wolverene 136

Genus Helictis--

175. Helictis Nipalensis (_Nepal Wolverene_) 138
176. " moschata (_Chinese Wolverene_) 138

MUSTELIDAE--MARTENS AND WEASELS 139

Genus Martes--The Martens--

177. Martes flavigula (_White-cheeked Marten_) 141
178. " abietum (_Pine Marten_) 142
179. " toufoeus 143

Genus Mustela--The Weasels--

180. Mustela (Vison: _Gray_) sub-hemachalana (_Sub-Hemachal
Weasel_) 145
181. " (Gymnopus: _Gray_) kathiah (_Yellow-bellied
Weasel_) 145
182. " (Gymnopus: _Gray_) strigidorsa (_Striped Weasel_) 146
183. " erminea (_Ermine or Stoat_) 146
184. " (Vison: _Gray_) canigula (_Hoary Red-necked
Weasel_) 146
185. " Stoliczkana 147
186. " (Vison) Sibirica 147
187. " alpina (_Alpine Weasel_) 147
188. " Hodgsoni 147
189. " (Vison) Horsfieldi 148
190. " (Gymnopus) nudipes 148

Genus Putorius--The Pole-cat--

191. Putorius larvatus _vel_ Tibetanus (_Black-faced
Thibetan Pole-cat_) 149
192. " Davidianus 149
193. " astutus 150
194. " Moupinensis 150

LUTRIDAE--The Otters 150

Genus Lutra--

195. Lutra nair (_Common Indian Otter_) 153
196. " monticola _vel_ simung 155
197. " Ellioti 155
198. " aurobrunnea 155

Genus Aonyx--Clawless Otters--

199. Aonyx leptonyx (_Clawless Otter_) 156

AELUROIDEA 156

FELIDAE--The Cat Family

Genus Felis--

200. Felis leo (_Lion_) 159
201. " tigris (_Tiger_) 161

THE PARDS OR PANTHERS 175

202. Felis pardus (_Pard_) 179
203. " panthera (_Panther_) 183
204. " uncia (_Ounce or Snow Panther_) 184
205. " Diardii _vel_ macrocelis (_Clouded Panther_) 185
206. " viverrina (_Large Tiger-Cat_) 187
207. " marmorata (_Marbled Tiger-Cat_) 188
208. " Bengalensis (_Leopard-Cat_) 189
209. " Jerdoni (_Lesser Leopard-Cat_) 191
210. " aurata (_Bay Cat_) 191
211. " rubiginosa (_Rusty-spotted Cat_) 192
212. " torquata (_Spotted Wild-Cat_) 193
213. " manul (_Black-chested Wild-Cat_) 193
214. " scripta 194
215. " Shawiana (_Yarkand Spotted Wild-Cat_) 194
216. " chaus (_Common Jungle-Cat_) 195
217. " isabellina (_Thibetan Lynx_) 197
218. " caracal (_Red Lynx_) 198
219. " jubata (_Hunting Leopard_) 200

HYAENIDAE--THE HYAENAS 203

Genus Hyaena--

220. Hyaena striata (_Striped Hyaena_) 205

VIVERRIDAE--THE CIVET FAMILY 207

Genus Viverra--

221. Viverra zibetha (_Large Civet Cat_) 208
222. " civettina (_Malabar Civet-Cat_) 209
223. " megaspila 209
224. " Malaccensis (_Lesser Civet-Cat_) 211

Genus Prionodon--

225. Prionodon pardicolor (_Tiger Civet or Linsang_) 212
226. " maculosus (_Spotted Linsang_) 213
227. " gracilis (_Malayan Linsang_) 215

Genus Paradoxurus--The Musangs--

228. Paradoxurus musanga (_Common Musang_) 216
229. " (Paguma _of Gray_) Grayii (_Hill Musang_) 217
230. " bondar (_Terai Musang_) 218
231. " trivirgatus (_Three-striped Musang_) 218
232. " leucotis (_White-eared Musang_) 219
233. " zeylanicus (_Golden Musang_) 220
234. " (Paguma) laniger 220

Genus Arctictis--

235. Arctictis binturong (_Binturong_) 221

HERPESTIDAE--THE ICHNEUMON OR MUNGOOSE FAMILY 222

Genus Herpestes--

236. Herpestes pallidus _vel_ griseus (_Common Grey Mungoose_) 223
237. " Jerdoni _vel_ monticolus (_Long-tailed Mungoose_) 225
238. " Smithii (_Ruddy Mungoose_) 225
239. " auropunctatus (_Gold-speckled Mungoose_) 225
240. " fuscus (_Neilgherry Brown Mungoose_) 226
241. " (Onychogale _of Gray_) Maccarthiae 226
242. " ferrugineus 226
243. " vitticollis (_Stripe-necked Mungoose_) 227
244. Urva cancrivora (_Crab-eating Mungoose_) 227

CYNOIDEA 228

Genus Canis--The Dog--
245. Canis pallipes (_Indian Wolf_) 232
246. " laniger (Lupus chanco _of Gray_) (_Thibetan Wolf_) 235
247. " lupus (_European Wolf_) 237
248. " aureus (_Jackal_) 237

Genus Cuon--

249. Canis (Cuon) rutilans (_Indian Wild Dog_) 239

Genus Vulpes--

250. Vulpes Bengalensis (_Indian Fox_) 243
251. " leucopus (_Desert Fox_) 244
252. " ferrilatus (_Thibetan Grey Fox_) 245
253. " montanus (_Hill Fox_) 245
254. " pusillus (_Punjab Fox_) 245
255. " flavescens (_Persian Fox_) 246
256. " Griffithii (_Afghanistan Fox_) 246

MARINE CARNIVORA 246

ORDER CETACEA--THE WHALES 247

Denticete--The Toothed Whales 248

FAMILY DELPHINIDAE--THE DOLPHINS OR PORPOISES 250

Genus Platanista--The River Dolphins--

257. Platanista Gangetica (_Gangetic Porpoise_) 251

Genus Orcella--The Round-headed River Dolphins--

258. Orcella brevirostris (_Short-nosed Round-headed
River Dolphin_) 255
259. " fluminalis (_Fresh-water Round-headed Dolphin_) 255

Genus Delphinus--The Marine Dolphins--

260. Delphinus perniger (_Black Dolphin_) 258
261. " plumbeus (_Lead-coloured Dolphin_) 258
262. " gadamu 258
263. " lentiginosus (_Freckled Dolphin_) 259
264. " maculiventer (_Spot-bellied Dolphin_) 259
265. " fusiformis (_Spindle-shaped Dolphin_) 259
266. " pomeegra (_Black or Pomeegra Dolphin_) 260
267. " longirostris (_Long-snouted Dolphin_) 260
268. " velox 260

Genus Phocaena--The Porpoises 260

Genus Globicephalus--The Ca'ing or Pilot Whale--

269. Globicephalus Indicus (_Indian Ca'ing Whale_) 261

PHYSETERIDAE--THE CACHELOTS OR SPERM WHALES 261

Genus Euphysetes--

270. Physeter _or_ Euphysetes simus (_Snub-nosed Cachelot_) 261

MYSTICETE--WHALEBONE OR BALEEN WHALES 262

Genus Balaena--The Right Whales 262

Genus Balaenoptera--Finback Whales or Rorquals--

271. Balaenoptera Indica (_Indian Rorqual_) 264

SIRENIA--THE MANATEES 267

Genus Halicore--The Dugong--

272. Halicore dugong (_Dugong_) 268

ORDER RODENTIA--THE GNAWERS 269

SUB-ORDER SIMPLICIDENTATA--SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS 272

SCIUROMORPHA 273

SCIURIDAE--THE SQUIRRELS 274

Genus Sciurus--

273. Sciurus Indicus (_Bombay Squirrel of Pennant_) 276
274. " maximus (_Central Indian Red Squirrel_) 277
275. " macrourus (_Long-tailed Forest Squirrel_) 278
276. " giganteus (_Black Hill Squirrel_) 279
277. " lokriah (_Orange-bellied Grey Squirrel_) 280
278. " lokroides (_Hoary-bellied Grey Squirrel_) 280
279. " pygerythrus 282
280. " caniceps (_Golden-backed Squirrel_) 282
281. " Phayrei (_Laterally-banded or Phayre's Squirrel_) 282
282. " Blanfordii (_Blanford's Squirrel_) 283
283. " atrodorsalis (_Black-backed Squirrel_) 284
284. " erythraeus (_Assam Red-bellied Squirrel_) 285
285. " Gordoni (_Gordon's Squirrel_) 285
286. " hippurus (_Chestnut-bellied Assam Squirrel_) 285
287. " Sladeni (_Sladen's Squirrel_) 286
288. " ferrugineus (_Rusty-coloured Squirrel_) 287
289. " palmarum (_Common Indian Ground Squirrel_) 287
290. " tristriatus (_Three-striped Ground-Squirrel_) 289
291. " Layardi (_Layard's Striped Ground-Squirrel_) 289
292. " sublineatus (_Dusky-striped Ground-Squirrel_) 290
293. " McClellandi (_McClelland's Ground-Squirrel_) 290
294. " Berdmorei (_Berdmore's Ground-Squirrel_) 291
295. " quinquestriatus (_Stripe-bellied Squirrel_) 291
296. " (Rhinosciurus) tupaoides (_Long-nosed Squirrel_) 292

Genus Pteromys--

297. Pteromys oral (_Brown Flying Squirrel_) 294
298. " cineraceus (_Ashy Flying Squirrel_) 296
299. " Yunnanensis (_Yunnan Flying Squirrel_) 296
300. " melanopterus (_Black-flanked Flying Squirrel_) 297
301. " alborufus (_Red and White Flying Squirrel_) 297
302. " magnificus (_Red-bellied Flying Squirrel_) 298
303. " albiventer (_White-bellied Flying Squirrel_) 299
304. " caniceps (_Grey-headed Flying Squirrel_) 299
305. " Pearsonii (_Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel_) 300
306. " fuscocapillus (_Small Travancore Flying
Squirrel_) 300
307. " fimbriatus (_Grey Flying Squirrel_) 301
308. " alboniger (_Black and White Flying Squirrel_) 301
309. " spadiceus (_Red Flying Squirrel_) 302

ARCTOMYDINAE--THE MARMOTS 302

Genus Arctomys--

310. Arctomys bobac (_Bobac, or Poland Marmot_) 303
311. " caudatus (_Red Marmot_) 304
312. " Hemachalanus (_Eastern Red Marmot_) 305
313. " aureus (_Golden Marmot_) 305
314. " dichrous 306
315. " robustus 306

MYOMORPHA--MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS 306

FAMILY MURIDAE 307

Genus Platacanthomys--

316. Platacanthomys lasiurus (_Long-tailed Spiny Mouse_) 308

SUB-FAMILY GERBILLINAE 309

Genus Gerbillus--

317. Gerbillus Indicus (_Indian Jerboa-Rat, or Kangaroo-Rat_) 309
318. " Hurrianae (_Desert Jerboa-Rat_) 311
319. " cryptorhinus (_Lobe-nosed Jerboa-Rat_) 312
320. " erythrurus (_Red-tailed Jerboa-Rat_) 313
321. " nanus (_Dwarf Jerboa-Rat_) 313

SUB-FAMILY PHLOEMYINAE 314

Genus Nesokia--

322. Nesokia Hardwickii (_Hardwick's Field-Rat_) 315
323. " Huttoni (_Hutton's Field-Rat_) 315
324. " Scullyi (_Scully's Field-Rat_) 315
325. " providens (_Southern India Field-Rat_) 316
326. " Blythiana (_Bengal Field-Rat_) 317
327. " Barclayiana (_Barclay's Field-Rat_) 318
328. Mus (Nesokia) Elliotanus (_Elliot's Field-Rat_) 318
329. " " giganteus (_Bandicoot_) 319

SUB-FAMILY CRICETINAE 320

Genus Cricetus--The Hamsters--

330. Cricetus phaeus (_Persian Hamster_) 321
331. " fulvus (_Sandy Hamster_) 321

SUB-FAMILY MURINAE 321

Genus Mus--

332. Mus rattus (_Black Rat_) 322
333. " decumanus (_Brown Rat_) 323
334. " Andamanensis (_Andaman Rat_) 325
335. " robustulus (_Burmese Common Rat_) 325
336. " Sladeni (_Sladen's Rat_) 326
337. " rubricosa (_Small Red Rat of the Kakhyen Hills_) 326
338. " Yunnanensis (_Common House Rat of Yunnan_) 327
339. " infralineatus (_Striped-bellied Rat_) 327
340. " brunneus (_Tree Rat_) 327
341. " rufescens (_Rufescent Tree Rat_) 328
342. " niveiventer (_White-bellied House Rat_) 329
343. " nitidus (_Shining Brown Rat_) 329
344. " caudatior (_Chestnut Rat_) 329
345. " concolor (_Common Thatch Rat of Pegu_) 330
346. " palmarum (_Nicobar Tree Rat_) 330
347. " Ceylonus 330
348. " plurimammis 331
349. " aequicaudalis 331
350. " oleraceus (_Long-tailed Tree Mouse_) 331
351. " Nilagiricus (_Neilgherry Tree Mouse_) 332
352. " badius (_Bay Tree Mouse_) 332
353. " gliroides (_Cherrapoonjee Tree Mouse_) 333
354. " Peguensis (_Pegu Tree Mouse_) 333
355. " urbanus (_Common Indian Mouse_) 333
356. " homourus 335
357. " Darjeelingensis 335
358. " Tytleri 335
359. " bactrianus 335
360. " crassipes (_Large-footed Mouse_) 337
361. " sublimis 337
362. " pachycercus 337
363. " erythronotus 337
364. " cervicolor (_Fawn-coloured Field Mouse_) 338
365. " terricolor (_Earth-coloured Field Mouse_) 338
366. " Peguensis (_Pegu Field Mouse_) 338
367. " nitidulus (_Shiny Little House Mouse of Pegu_) 338
368. " Beaveni (_Beaven's Mouse_) 339
369. " cunicularis (_Little Rabbit-Mouse_) 339
370. " erythrotis (_Cherrapunji Red-eared Mouse_) 339
371. " fulvidiventris 340
372. " Kakhyenensis (_Kakhyen Mouse_) 340
373. " viculorum (_Kakhyen House Mouse_) 340

Genus Leggada--

374. Leggada platythrix (_Brown Spiny Mouse_) 341
375. " spinulosa (_Dusky Spiny Mouse_) 342
376. " Jerdoni (_Himalayan Spiny Mouse_) 342
377. " lepida (_Small Spiny Mouse_) 342

Genus Golunda--

378. Golunda Ellioti (_Bush Rat or Coffee Rat_) 343
379. " meltada (_Soft-furred Bush Rat_) 344

Genus Hapalomys--

380. Hapalomys longicaudatus 345
381. Mus ouang-thomae (_Kiangsi Rat_) 346
382. " flavipectus (_Yellow-breasted Rat_) 346
383. " griseipectus (_Grey-breasted Rat_) 346
384. " Confucianus 347
385. " Chevrieri 347
386. " pygmaeus (_Pigmy Mouse_) 347

ARVICOLINAE 347

Genus Arvicola--

387. Arvicola Stoliczkanus (_Yarkand Vole_) 349
388. " Stracheyi (_Kumaon Vole_) 349
389. " Wynnei (_Murree Vole_) 350
390. " Roylei (_Cashmere Vole_) 350
391. " Blanfordi (_Gilgit Vole_) 350
392. " Blythii 351
393. " mandarinus (_Afghan Vole_) 351
394. " Sikimensis (_Sikim Vole_) 351
395. " melanogaster 352

FAMILY SPALACIDAE 352

Genus Rhizomys--The Bamboo-Rat--

396. Rhizomys badius (_Chestnut Bamboo-Rat_) 353
397. " erythrogenys (_Red-cheeked Bamboo-Rat_) 354
398. " pruinosus (_Hoary Bamboo-Rat_) 354
399. " minor (_Small Bamboo-Rat_) 354

FAMILY DIPODIDAE 355

Genus Dipus--The Jerboas--

400. Dipus lagopus (_Yarkand Jerboa_) 357

Genus Alactaga--

401. Alactaga Indica 358

HYSTRICOMORPHA--PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS 359

FAMILY HYSTRICIDAE--THE PORCUPINES 360

SUB-FAMILY HYSTRICINAE--THE TRUE PORCUPINES 360

Genus Atherura--The Long-tailed Porcupine--

402. Atherura fasciculata (_Brush-tailed Porcupine_) 361

Genus Hystrix--The Porcupine--

403. Hystrix leucura (_White-tailed Indian Porcupine_) 362
404. " Bengalensis (_Bengal Porcupine_) 365
405. " (Acanthion) longicauda (_Crestless Porcupine_) 366
406. " Yunnanensis 366

SUB-ORDER DUPLICIDENTATA--DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS 367

FAMILY LEPORIDAE--THE HARES 368

Genus Lepus--

407. Lepus ruficaudatus (_Common Indian Red-tailed Hare_) 369
408. " nigricollis (_Black-naped Hare_) 369
409. " Peguensis (_Pegu Hare_) 370
410. " hypsibius (_Mountain Hare_) 370
411. " pallipes (_Pale-footed Hare_) 370
412. " Tibetanus (_Thibet Hare_) 371
413. " Yarkandensis (_Yarkand Hare_) 371
414. " Pamirensis (_Pamir Hare_) 372
415. " Stoliczkanus (_Stoliczka's Hare_) 372
416. " craspedotis (_Large-eared Hare_) 372
417. " hispidus (_Hispid Hare_) 373

FAMILY LAGOMYIDAE--THE PIKAS, OR MOUSE-HARES 373

Genus Lagomys--

418. Lagomys Roylei (_Royle's Pika_) 374
419. " Curzoniae (_Curzon's Pika_) 374
420. " Ladacensis (_Ladak Pika_) 374
421. " auritus (_Large-eared Pika_) 375
422. " macrotis 375
423. " griseus (_Grey Pika_) 375
424. " rufescens (_Red Pika_) 376

ORDER PROBOSCIDEA 377

Genus Elephas--The Elephant--

425. Elephas Indicus (_Indian or Asiatic Elephant_) 389

ORDER UNGULATA 397

SUB-ORDER PERISSODACTYLA 397

FAMILY EQUIDAE--THE HORSE 398

Genus Equus--

426. Equus onager (_Wild Ass of Kutch_) 399
427. " hemionus (_Kiang or Wild Ass of Thibet_) 401

FAMILY TAPIRIDAE--THE TAPIR 403

Genus Tapirus--

428. Tapirus Malayanus (_Malay Tapir_) 404

FAMILY RHINOCEROTIDAE 405

Genus Rhinoceros--

429. Rhinoceros Indicus 407
430. " Sondaicus (_Javan Rhinoceros_) 410

Genus Ceratorhinus--

431. Rhinoceros _vel_ Ceratorhinus (Crossi?) lasiotis
(_Ear-fringed Rhinoceros_) 411
432. Rhinoceros _vel_ Ceratorhinus Sumatrensis
(_Sumatran Rhinoceros_) 412

SUB-ORDER ARTIODACTYLA 413

FAMILY SUIDAE--THE HOGS 414

Genus Sus--

433. Sus scrofa (_European Wild Boar_) 415
434. " Indicus (_Indian Boar_) 416
435. " Andamanensis (_Andaman Island Pig_) 420
436. " Moupinensis 420

Genus Porcula--

437. Porcula Salvania (_Pigmy Hog of the Saul Forests_) 421

RUMINANTIA--THE RUMINANTS 422

FAMILY BOVIDAE--HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS 424

SUB-FAMILY CAPRINAE--GOATS AND SHEEP 424

Genus Ovis--The Sheep--

438. Ovis Polii (_Marco Polo's Sheep_) 424
439. " Hodgsoni (_Argali or Ovis Ammon of Thibet_) 427
440. " Karelini (_Karelin's Wild Sheep_) 430
441. " Brookei (_Brooke's Wild Sheep_) 434
442. " Vignei (_Vigne's Wild Sheep_) 435
443. " cycloceros (_Punjab Wild Sheep_) 435
444. " Blanfordii (_Blanford's Wild Sheep_) 437
445. " nahura _vel_ burhel (_Blue Wild Sheep_) 438

Genus Capra--The Goats--

446. Capra megaceros (_Markhor_) 441
447. " Sibirica (_Himalayan Ibex_) 444
448. " aegagrus (_Wild Goat of Asia Minor_) 446

Sub-genus Hemitragus--

449. Capra _vel_ Hemitragus Jemlaicus (_Tahr_) 449
450. " " " hylocrius (_Neilgherry Wild
Goat, or Ibex of Madras Sportsmen_) 451

THE GOAT ANTELOPES, OR CAPRICORNS 454

Genus Nemorhoedus--

451. Nemorhoedus bubalina (_Serow, or Forest Goat_) 454
452. " rubida _vel_ Sumatrensis (_Arakanese
Capricorn_) 456
453. " Edwardsii (_Thibetan Capricorn_) 457
454. " goral (_Small Himalayan Capricorn_) 457

Genus Budorcas--

455. Budorcas taxicolor (_Takin_) 460

Genus Gazella--The Gazelles--

456. Gazella Bennetti (_Indian Gazelle_) 463
457. " fuscifrons (_Baluchistan Gazelle_) 465
458. " subgutterosa (_Persian Gazelle_) 466
459. " picticaudata (_Thibetan Gazelle_) 467

Genus Pantholops--

460. Pantholops Hodgsonii (_Chiru_) 469

Genus Antelope (restricted)--

461. Antelope bezoartica (_Indian Antelope_) 472

Genus Portax--The Nylgao--

462. Portax pictus _vel_ tragocamelus (_Nylgao or Blue Bull_) 476

Genus Tetraceros--

463. Tetraceros quadricornis (_Four-horned Antelope_) 479

BOVINAE--CATTLE 480

Genus Gavaeus--

464. Gavaeus gaurus (_Gaur, popularly called Bison_) 481
465. " frontalis (_Mithun or Gayal_) 486
466. " Sondaicus (_Burmese Wild Ox_) 488

Genus Poephagus--The Yak--

467. Poephagus grunniens (_Yak or Grunting Ox_) 489

Genus Bubalus--The Buffalos--

468. Bubalus arni (_Wild Buffalo_) 490

Genus Moschus--The Musk Deer--

469. Moschus moschiferus (_Musk Deer_) 494

CERVIDAE--THE DEER 495

Genus Cervulus--The Muntjacs or Rib-faced Deer--

470. Cervulus muntjac _vel_ aureus (_Muntjac or Rib-faced
Deer_) 500

Genus Rusa--The Rusine Deer--

471. Rusa Aristotelis (_Sambar_) 503

Genus Axis--

472. Axis maculatus (_Spotted Deer_) 506
473. " porcinus (_Hog Deer_) 508

Genus Rucervus--

474. Rucervus Duvaucelli (_Swamp-Deer_) 510
475. " _vel_ Panolia Eldii (_Brown Antlered or Eld's
Deer_) 511

Genus Cervus--

476. Cervus Cashmirianus (_Kashmir Stag_) 512
477. " affinis _vel_ Wallichii (_Sikhim Stag_) 514

TRAGULIDAE--THE CHEVROTIANS OR DEERLETS 515

Genus Tragulus--

478. Tragulus napu (_Javan Deerlet_) 516

Genus Meminna--

479. Meminna Indica (_Indian Mouse Deer_) 516

TRIBE TYLOPODA--THE CAMELS 518

ORDER EDENTATA 519

Genus Manis--

480. Manis pentadactyla _or_ brachyura (_Five-fingered or
Short-tailed Pangolin_) 520
481. " aurita (_Eared Pangolin_) 521
482. " Javanica (_Javan Ant-eater_) 522

APPENDIX A 523

APPENDIX B 525

APPENDIX C 526

APPENDIX D 532

INDEX 535




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.


SECTION
_Felis Tigris_ _Frontispiece_
Skull of _Hylobates hooluck_ 1
_Hylobates lar_; _Hylobates hooluck_ 2
_Presbytes entellus_ 4
" _thersites_ 15
_Macacus silenus_ 17
" _rhesus_ 18
" _nemestrinus_ 20
" _radiatus_ and _Macacus pileatus_ 24
" _cynomolgus_ 26
_Loris gracilis_ and _Nycticebus tardigradus_ 28
_Galaeopithecus volans_ 30
Sternum of _Pteropus_ Cheiroptera
The Flying Fox at Home 31
Head of _Pteropus medius_ 31
_Cynopterus marginatus_ 33
_Megaderma lyra_ 36
" _spasma_ 38
_Rhinolophus luctus_ 39
" _ferrum-equinum_ 41
_Phyllorhina armigera_ (male and female) 64
Skull of _Rhinopoma_ 69
_Plecotus auritus_ 77
_Vesperugo noctula_ 78
" _Leisleri_ 89
_Scotophilus Temminckii_ 93
Skull of _Harpiocephalus harpia_ 99
_Vespertilio murinus_ 108
" _formosus_ 116
_Synotus barbastellus_ Genus Barbastellus
Dentition of Shrew (magnified) Genus Sorex
" of Hedgehog Family Erinaceidae
Hedgehog Genus Erinaceus
Dentition of _Tupaia_ 158
_Tupaia Peguana_ 159
_Gymnura Rafflesii_ 162
Dentition of Tiger and Indian Black Bear Carnivora
" of Bear Ursidae
Skull of Bear (under view) Ursidae
_Ursus Isabellinus_ 163
" _Tibetanus_ 164
" _Malayanus_ 166
" _labiatus_ 167
_Ailuropus melanoleucos_ 168
_Ailurus fulgens_ 169
_Arctonyx collaris_ 170
_Mellivora Indica_ 174
Skull of _Putorius_ Mustelidae
_Martes abietum_ 178
_Mustela_ Genus Mustela
Otter's skull (side and under view) Lutridae
_Lutra nair_ 195
Skull of Tiger (side view) Felidae
Tendons of Tiger's toe Felidae
Auditory apparatus of Tiger (section) Felidae
_Felis leo_ (Indian variety) 200
Head of Tiger 201
Tiger's skull (under part) 201
_Felis panthera_ (_From a fine specimen in the Regent's Park
Gardens_) 203
" _uncia_ 204
" _Diardii_ 205
Skull of _Felis viverrina_ 206
_Felis marmorata_ 207
" _aurata_ 210
" _caracal_ 218
" _jubata_ 219
Skull of _Felis jubata_ 219
Skull of Hyaena Hyaenidae
_Hyaena striata_ 220
Dentition of Civet Viverridae
_Viverra zibetha_ 221
" _megaspila_ 223
" _Malaccensis_ 224
_Prionodon maculosus_ 226
_Paradoxurus trivirgatus_ 231
_Arctictis binturong_ 235
_Urva cancrivora_ 244
Dentition of Wolf Genus Canis
_Canis pallipes_ 245
_Cuon rutilans_ 249
_Platanista Gangetica_ 257
Gangetic Dolphin; Round-headed River Dolphin; Gadamu Dolphin;
Freckled Dolphin; Black Dolphin Genus Delphinus
Skull of Baleen Whale Genus Balaena
Rorqual 271
_Halicore dugong_ 272
Skull of _Pteromys_ (Flying Squirrel) Genus Sciurus
_Sciurus maximus_ 274
_Pteromys oral_ 297
Dentition of _Gerbillus_ Genus Gerbillus
Dentition of _Cricetus_ Genus Cricetus
_Cricetus_ Genus Cricetus
Dentition of Black Rat 332
" of _Arvicola_ Arvicolinae
_Rhizomys badius_ 396
Dentition of Jerboa Family Dipodidae
_Dipus_ Genus Dipus
Skull of Porcupine Family Hystricidae
_Hystrix leucura_ 403
Dentition of Hare Sub-order Duplicidentata
Side view of Grinders of Asiatic Elephant Genus Elephas
Grinder of Asiatic Elephant Genus Elephas
" of African Elephant Genus Elephas
Section of Elephant's Skull Genus Elephas
Skeleton of Elephant Genus Elephas
Muscles of Elephant's Trunk Genus Elephas
Dentition of Horse Family Equidae
_Equus onager_ 426
Dentition of Tapir Family Tapiridae
_Tapirus Malayanus_ 428
Dentition of Rhinoceros Genus Rhinoceros
_Rhinoceros Indicus_ 429
" _Indicus_ 429
" _Sondaicus_ 430
" _lasiotis_ (_R. Indicus_ and _R. Sondaicus_ in
the distance) 431
Bones of a Pig's foot Sub-order Artiodactyla
Dentition of Wild Boar Family Suidae
_Sus Indicus_ 434
_Porcula Salvania_ 437
_Ovis Polii_ 438
Horns of _Ovis Polii_ 438
_Ovis Hodgsoni_ 439
Skull of _Ovis Hodgsoni_ 439
Horns of _Ovis Karelini_ 440
_Ovis Brookei_ 441
" _cycloceros_ 443
" _nahura_ 445
_Capra megaceros_. No. 1 variety 446
" " No. 2 variety 446
" _Sibirica_ 447
_Hemitragus Jemlaicus_ 449
_Nemorhoedus bubalina_ 451
" _goral_ 454
_Budorcas taxicolor_ 455
_Gazella Bennetti_ (male and female) 456
" _subgutterosa_ 458
Saiga Antelope Genus Pantholops
_Pantholops Hodgsoni_ 460
_Antelope bezoartica_ 461
_Portax pictus_ 462
_Tetraceros quadricornis_ 463
_Gavaeus gaurus_ 464
" _frontalis_ 465
_Bubalus arni_ 468
Skull of Musk Deer 468
_Moschus moschiferus_ 469
" _moschiferus_ 469
Stag with Horns matured Cervidae
" " " in velvet Cervidae
_Cervulus aureus_ 470
_Rusa Aristotelis_ 471
_Axis maculatus_ 472
" _porcinus_ 473
_Cervus Cashmirianus_ 476
_Tragulus napu_ 478
Mouse Deer 479
_Manis pentadactyla_ 480
Dentition of Dormouse (magnified) Appendix A
_Myoxus_ Appendix A
Osteology of the skull of _Platanista Gangetica_ Appendix B
The Slow Loris Appendix C
Osteology of the feet of Pig, or African deerlet; Javan
deerlet; Roebuck; Sheep; Camel Appendix C
Gaur Appendix C




NATURAL HISTORY
OF THE
MAMMALIA OF BRITISH INDIA AND CEYLON.




INTRODUCTION.


In laying before the public the following history of the Indian
Mammalia, I am actuated by the feeling that a popular work on the
subject is needed, and would be appreciated by many who do not care
to purchase the expensive books that exist, and who also may be more
bothered than enlightened by over-much technical phraseology and
those learned anatomical dissertations which are necessary to the
scientific zoologist.

Another motive in thus venturing is, that the only complete history
of Indian Mammalia is Dr. Jerdon's, which is exhaustive within the
boundaries he has assigned to India proper; but as he has excluded
Assam, Cachar, Tenasserim, Burmah, Arracan, and Ceylon, his book is
incomplete as a Natural History of the Mammals of British India. I
shall have to acknowledge much to Jerdon in the following pages, and
it is to him I owe much encouragement, whilst we were together in
the field during the Indian Mutiny, in the pursuit of the study to
which he devoted his life; and the general arrangement of this work
will be based on his book, his numbers being preserved, in order that
those who possess his 'Mammals of India' may readily refer to the
noted species.

But I must also plead indebtedness to many other naturalists who have
left their records in the 'Journals of the Asiatic Society' and other
publications, or who have brought out books of their own, such as
Blyth, Elliott, Hodgson, Sherwill, Sykes, Tickell, Hutton, Kellaart,
Emerson Tennent, and others; Col. McMaster's 'Notes on Jerdon,' Dr.
Anderson's 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches,' Horsfield's
'Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum of the East India Company,'
Dr. Dobson's 'Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera,' the writings of
Professors Martin Duncan, Flowers, Kitchen Parker, Boyd Dawkins,
Garrod, Mr. E. R. Alston, Sir Victor Brooke and others; the
Proceedings and Journals of the Zoological, Linnean, and Asiatic
Societies, and the correspondence in _The Asian_; so that after all
my own share is minimised to a few remarks here and there, based on
personal experience during a long period of jungle life, and on
observation of the habits of animals in their wild state, and also
in captivity, having made a large collection of living specimens from
time to time.

As regards classification, Cuvier's system is the most popular, so
I shall adopt it to a certain extent, keeping it as a basis, but
engrafting on it such modifications as have met with the approval
of modern naturalists. For comparison I give below a synopsis of
Cuvier's arrangement. I have placed Cetacea after Carnivora, and
Edentata at the end. In this I have followed recent authors as well
as Jerdon, whose running numbers I have preserved as far as possible
for purposes of reference.

Cuvier divides the Mammals into nine orders, as follows. (_The
examples I give are Indian ones, except where stated otherwise_):--

_Order I_.--BIMANA. Man.

_Order II_.--QUADRUMANA. Two families--1st, Apes and Monkeys; 2nd,
Lemurs.

_Order III_.--CARNARIA. Three families--1st, _Cheiroptera_, Bats;
2nd, _Insectivora_, Hedgehogs, Shrews, Moles, Tupaiae, &c.; 3rd,
_Carnivora_: Tribe 1, _Plantigrades_, Bears, Ailurus, Badger,
Arctonyx; 2, _Digitigrades_, Martens, Weasels, Otters, Cats,
Hyaenas, Civets, Musangs, Mongoose, Dogs, Wolves and Foxes.

_Order IV_.--MARSUPIATA. Implacental Mammals peculiar to America
and Australia, such as Opossums, Dasyures, Wombats, and Kangaroos.
We have none in India.

_Order V_.--RODENTIA. Squirrels, Marmots, Jerboas, Mole-Rats, Rats,
Mice, Voles, Porcupines, and Hares.

_Order VI_.--EDENTATA, or toothless Mammals, either partially or
totally without teeth. Three families--1st, _Tardigrades_, the
Sloths, peculiar to America; 2nd, _Effodientia_, or Burrowers, of
which the Indian type is the Manis, but which includes in other parts
of the world the Armadillos and Anteaters; 3rd, _Monotremata_, Spiny
Anteaters or Echidnas, and the Ornithorynchus.

_Order VII_.--PACHYDERMATA, or thick-skinned Mammals. Three
families--1st, _Proboscidians_, Elephants; 2nd, _Ordinary
Pachyderms_, Rhinoceroses, Hogs; 3rd, _Solidungula_, Horses.

_Order VIII_.--RUMINANTIA, or cud-chewing Mammals. Four
families--1st, _Hornless Ruminants_, Camels, Musks; 2nd, _Cervidae_,
true horns shed periodically, Deer; 3rd, _Persistent horns_,
Giraffes; 4th, _Hollow-horned Ruminants_, Antelopes, Goats, Sheep
and Oxen.

_Order IX._--CETACEA. Three families--1st, _Herbivorous Cetacea_,
Manatees, Dugongs; 2nd, _Ordinary Cetacea_, Porpoises; 3rd,
_Balaenidae_, Whales.




ORDER BIMANA.


Some people have an extreme repugnance to the idea that man should
be treated of in connection with other animals. The development
theory is shocking to them, and they would deny that man has anything
in common with the brute creation. This is of course mere sentiment;
no history of nature would be complete without the noblest work of
the Creator. The great gulf that separates the human species from
the rest of the animals is the impassable one of intellect.
Physically, he should be compared with the other mammals, otherwise
we should lose our first standpoint of comparison. There is no
degradation in this, nor is it an acceptance of the development
theory. To argue that man evolved from the monkey is an ingenious
joke which will not bear the test of examination, and the Scriptural
account may still be accepted. I firmly believe in man as an original
creation just as much as I disbelieve in any development of the Flying
Lemur (_Galeopithecus_) from the Bat, or that the habits of an animal
would in time materially alter its anatomy, as in the case of the
abnormal length of the hind toe and nail of the Jacana. It is not
that the habit of running over floating leaves induced the change,
but that an all-wise Creator so fashioned it that it might run on
those leaves in search of its food. I accept the development theory
to the extent of the multiplication of species, or perhaps, more
correctly, varieties in genera. We see in the human race how
circumstances affect physical appearance. The child of the ploughman
or navvy inherits the broad shoulders and thick-set frame of his
father; and in India you may see it still more forcibly in the
difference between Hindu and Mahomedan races, and those Hindus who
have been converted to Mahomedanism. I do not mean isolated converts
here and there who intermarry with pure Mahomedan women, but I mean
whole communities who have in olden days been forced to accept Islam.
In a few generations the face assumes an unmistakable Mahomedan type.
It is the difference in living and in thought that effects this change.

It is the same with animals inhabiting mountainous districts as
compared with the same living in the plains; constant enforced
exercise tells on the former, and induces a more robust and active form.

Whether diet operates in the same degree to effect changes I am
inclined to doubt. In man there is no dental or intestinal difference,
whether he be as carnivorous as an Esquimaux or as vegetarian as a
Hindu; whereas in created carnivorous, insectivorous, and
herbivorous animals there is a striking difference, instantly to be
recognised even in those of the same family. Therefore, if diet has
operated in effecting such changes, why has it not in the human race?

"Who shall decide when doctors disagree?" is a quotation that may
aptly be applied to the question of the classification of man; Cuvier,
Blumenbach, Fischer, Bory St. Vincent, Prichard, Latham, Morton,
Agassiz and others have each a system.

Cuvier recognises only three types--the Caucasian, the Mongolian,
and the Negro or Ethiopian, including Blumenbach's fourth and fifth
classes, American and Malay in Mongolian. But even Cuvier himself
could hardly reconcile the American with the Mongol; he had the high
cheek-bone and the scanty beard, it is true, but his eyes and his
nose were as Caucasian as could be, and his numerous dialects had
no affinity with the type to which he was assigned.

Fischer in his classification divided man into seven races:--

1_st_.--_Homo japeticus_, divided into three varieties--_Caucasicus_,
_Arabicus_ and _Indicus_.

2_nd_.--_H. Neptunianus_, consisting of--1st, the Malays peopling
the coasts of the islands of the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, &c.; 2nd,
New Zealanders and Islanders of the Pacific; and, 3rd, the Papuans.

3_rd_.--_H. Scythicus_. Three divisions, viz.: 1st, Calmucks and
other Tartars; 2nd, Chinese and Japanese; and, 3rd, Esquimaux.

4_th_.--_H. Americanus_, and

5_th_.--_H. Columbicus_, belong to the American Continent.

6_th_.--_H. AEthiopicus_. The Negro.

7_th_.--_H. Polynesius_. The _inland_ inhabitants of the Malay
Peninsula, of the Islands of the Indian Ocean, of Madagascar, New
Guinea, New Holland, &c.

I think this system is the one that most commends itself from its
clearness, but there are hardly two writers on ethnology who keep
to the same classification.

Agassiz classifies by realms, and has eight divisions.

The Indian races with which we have now to deal are distributed,
generally speaking, as follows:--

Caucasian.--(_Homo japeticus_, Bory and Fischer). Northerly,
westerly, and in the Valley of the Ganges in particular, but
otherwise generally distributed over the most cultivated parts of
the Peninsula, comprising the Afghans (Pathans), Sikhs, Brahmins,
Rajputs or Kshatryas of the north-west, the Arabs, Parsees, and
Mahrattas of the west coast, the Singhalese of the extreme south,
the Tamils of the east, and the Bengalis of the north-east.

Mongolians (_H. Scythicus_), inhabiting the chain of mountains to
the north, from Little Thibet on the west to Bhotan on the east, and
then sweeping downwards southerly to where Tenasserim joins the
Malay Peninsula. They comprise the Hill Tribes of the N. Himalayas,
the Goorkhas of Nepal, and the Hill Tribes of the north-eastern
frontier, viz. Khamtis, Singphos, Mishmis, Abors, Nagas, Jynteas,
Khasyas, and Garos. Those of the northern borders: Bhotias, Lepchas,
Limbus, Murmis and Haioos; of the Assam Valley Kachari, Mech and Koch.

The Malays (_H. Neptunianus_) Tipperah and Chittagong tribes, the
Burmese and Siamese.

Now comes the most difficult group to classify--the aborigines of
the interior, and of the hill ranges of Central India, the Kols, Gonds,
Bhils, and others which have certain characteristics of the
Mongolian, but with skins almost as dark as the Negro, and the full
eye of the Caucasian. The main body of these tribes, which I should
feel inclined to classify under Fischer's _H. Polynesius_, have been
divided by Indian ethnologists into two large groups--the Kolarians
and Dravidians. The former comprise the Juangs, Kharrias, Mundas,
Bhumij, Ho or Larka Kols, Santals, Birhors, Korwas, Kurs, Kurkus or
Muasis, Bhils, Minas, Kulis. The latter contains the Oraons, Malers,
Paharis of Rajamahal, Gonds and Kands.

The Cheroos and Kharwars, Parheyas, Kisans, Bhuikers, Boyars,
Nagbansis, Kaurs, Mars, Bhunyiars, Bendkars form another great group
apart from the Kolarians and Dravidians, and approximating more to
the Indian variety of the Japetic class.

Then there are the extremely low types which one has no hesitation
in assigning to the lowest form of the Polynesian group, such as the
Andamanese, the jungle tree-men of Chittagong, Tipperah, and the
vast forests stretching towards Sambhulpur.

On these I would now more particularly dwell as points of comparison
with the rest of the animal kingdom. I have taken but a superficial
view of the varieties of the higher types of the human race in India,
for the subject, if thoroughly entered into, would require a volume
of no ordinary dimensions; and those who wish to pursue the study
further should read an able paper by Sir George Campbell in the
'Journal of the Asiatic Society' for June 1866 (vol. xxxv. Part II.),
Colonel Dalton's 'Ethnology of Bengal,' the Rev. S. Hislop's
'Memoranda,' and the 'Report of the Central Provinces Ethnological
Committee.' There is as yet, however, very little reliable
information regarding the wilder forms of humanity inhabiting dense
forests, where, enjoying apparently complete immunity from the
deadly malaria that proves fatal to all others, they live a life but
a few degrees removed from the Quadrumana.

I have in my book on the Seonee District described the little colonies
in the heart of the Bison jungles. Clusters of huts imbedded in
tangled masses of foliage, surrounded by an atmosphere reeking with
the effluvia of decaying vegetation, where, unheedful of the great
outer world beyond their sylvan limits, the Gonds pass year after
year of uneventful lives.

In some of these hamlets I was looked upon with positive awe, as being
the first white man the _Baigas_ had seen. But these simple savages
rank high in the scale compared with some others, of whom we have
as yet but imperfect descriptions.

Some years ago Mr. Piddington communicated to the Asiatic Society
an account of some "Monkey-men" he came across on the borders of the
Palamow jungle. He was in the habit of employing the aboriginal
tribes to work for him, and on one occasion a party of his men found
in the jungle a man and woman in a state of starvation, and brought
them in. They were both very short in stature, with disproportionately
long arms, which in the man were covered with a reddish-brown hair.
They looked almost more like baboons than human beings, and their
language was unintelligible, except that words here and there
resembled those in one of the Kolarian dialects. By signs, and by the
help of these words, one of the Dhangars managed to make out that they
lived in the depths of the forest, but had to fly from their people on
account of a blood feud. Mr. Piddington was anxious to send them down
to Calcutta, but before he could do so, they decamped one night, and
fled again to their native wilds. Those jungles are, I believe, still
in a great measure unexplored; and, if some day they are opened out,
it is to be hoped that the "Monkey-men" will be again discovered.[1]

[Footnote 1: There has been lately exhibited in London a child from
Borneo which has several points in common with the monkey--hairy face
and arms, the hair on the fore-arm being reversed, as in the apes.]

The lowest type with which we are familiar is the Andamanese, and
the wilder sort of these will hardly bear comparison with even the
degraded Australian or African Bosjesman, and approximate in
debasement to the Fuegians.

The Andamanese are small in stature--the men averaging about five
feet, the women less. They are very dark, I may say black, but here
the resemblance to the Negro ceases. They have not the thick lips
and flat nose, nor the peculiar heel of the Negro. In habit they are
in small degree above the brutes, architecture and agriculture being
unknown. The only arts they are masters of are limited to the
manufacture of weapons, such as spears, bows and arrows, and canoes.
They wear no kind of dress, but, when flies and mosquitoes are
troublesome, plaster themselves with mud. The women are fond of
painting themselves with red ochre, which they lay thickly over their
heads, after scraping off the hair with a flint-knife. They swim and
dive like ducks, and run up trees like monkeys. Though affectionate
to their children, they are ruthless to the stranger, killing every
one who happens to be cast away on their inhospitable shores. They
have been accused of cannibalism, but this is open to doubt. The
bodies of those they have killed have been found dreadfully mutilated,
almost pounded to a jelly, but no portion had been removed.[2]

[Footnote 2: Since the above was written there has been published
in the 'Journal of the Anthropological Institute,' vol. xii., a most
interesting and exhaustive paper on these people by Mr. E. H. Man,
F.R.G.S., giving them credit for much intelligence.]

In the above description I speak of the savage Andamanese in his wild
state, and not of the specimens to be seen at Port Blair, who have
become in an infinitesimal degree civilised--that is to say, to the
extent of holding intercourse with foreigners, making some slight
additions to their argillaceous dress-suits, and understanding the
principles of exchange and barter--though as regards this last a
friend informs me that they have no notion of a token currency, but
only understand the _argumentum ad hominem_ in the shape of
comestibles, so that your bargains, to be effectual, must be made
within reach of a cookshop or grocery. The same friend tells me he
learnt at Port Blair that there were marriage restrictions on which
great stress was laid. This may be the case on the South Island; there
is much testimony on the other side as regards the more savage
Andamanese.

The forest tribes of Chittagong are much higher in the scale than
the Andamanese, but they are nevertheless savages of a low type.
Captain Lewin says: "The men wear scarcely any clothing, and the
petticoat of the women is scanty, reaching only to the knee; they
worship the terrene elements, and have vague and undefined ideas of
some divine power which overshadows all. They were born and they die
for ends to them as incomputable as the path of a cannon-shot fired
into the darkness. They are cruel, and attach but little value to
life. Reverence or respect are emotions unknown to them, they salute
neither their chiefs nor their elders, neither have they any
expression conveying thanks." There is, however, much that is
interesting in these wild people, and to those who wish to know more
I recommend Captain Lewin's account of 'The Hill Tracts of Chittagong.'




ORDER QUADRUMANA.


The monkeys of the Indian Peninsula are restricted to a few groups,
of which the principal one is that of the _Semnopitheci_. These
monkeys are distinguished not only by their peculiar black faces,
with a ridge of long stiff black hair projecting forwards over the
eyebrows, thin slim bodies and long tails, but by the absence of cheek
pouches, and the possession of a peculiar sacculated stomach, which,
as figured in Cuvier, resembles a bunch of grapes. Jerdon says of
this group that, out of five species found on the continent there
is only one spread through all the plains of Central and Northern
India, and one through the Himalayas, whilst there are three
well-marked species in the extreme south of the Peninsula; but then
he omits at least four species inhabiting Chittagong, Tenasserim,
Arracan, which also belong to the continent of India, though perhaps
not to the actual Peninsula. Sir Emerson Tennent, in his 'Natural
History of Ceylon,' also mentions and figures three species, of which
two are not included in Jerdon's 'Mammals,' though incidentally
spoken of. I propose to add the Ceylon Mammalia to the Indian, and
therefore shall allude to these further on.

The next group of Indian monkeys is that of the Macaques or Magots,
or Monkey Baboons of India, the _Lal Bundar_ of the natives. They
have simple stomachs and cheek pouches, which last, I dare say, most
of us have noticed who have happened to give two plantains in
succession to one of them.

Although numerically the _Langurs_ or Entellus Monkeys form the most
important group of the Quadrumana in India, yet the Gibbons (which
are not included by Jerdon) rank highest in the scale, though the
species are restricted to but three--_Hylobates hooluck_, _H. lar_
and _H. syndactylus_. They are superior in formation (that is taking
man as the highest development of the form, to which some people take
objection, though to my way of thinking there is not much to choose
between the highest type of monkey and the lowest of humanity, if
we would but look facts straight in the face), and they are also
vastly superior in intellect to either the _Langurs_ or the
_Macaques_, though inferior perhaps to the Ourangs.


_GENUS HYLOBATES--THE GIBBONS_,

Which, with the long arms of the Ourangs and the receding forehead
of the Chimpanzee, possess the callosities of the true monkeys, but
differ from them in having neither tail nor cheek pouches. They are
true bipeds on the ground, applying the sole of the foot flatly, not,
as Cuvier and others have remarked of the Ourangs, with the outer
edge of the sole only, but flat down, as Blyth, who first mentions
it, noticed it, with the thumb or big toe widely separated.


NO. 1. HYLOBATES HOOLUCK.
_The White-fronted Gibbon_.

NATIVE NAMES.--_Hooluck_, _Hookoo_.

HABITAT.--Garo and Khasia Hills, Valley of Assam, and Arracan.

DESCRIPTION.--Males deep black, marked with white across the
forehead. Females vary from brownish black to whitish-brown, without,
however, the fulvous tint observable in pale specimens of the next
species.

"In general they are paler on the crown, back, and outside of limbs,
darker in front, and much darker on the cheeks and chin."--_Blyth_.

SIZE.--About two feet.

[Figure: Skull of _Hylobates hooluck_.]

I think of all the monkey family this Gibbon makes one of the most
interesting pets. It is mild and most docile, and capable of great
attachment. Even the adult male has been caught, and within the short
space of a month so completely tamed that he would follow and come
to a call. One I had for a time, some years ago, was a most engaging
little creature. Nothing contented him so much as being allowed to
sit by my side with his arm linked through mine, and he would resist
any attempt I made to go away. He was extremely clean in his habits,
which cannot be said of all the monkey tribe. Soon after he came to
me I gave him a piece of blanket to sleep on in his box, but the next
morning I found he had rolled it up and made a sort of pillow for
his head, so a second piece was given him. He was destined for the
Queen's Gardens at Delhi, but unfortunately on his way up he got a
chill, and contracted a disease akin to consumption. During his
illness he was most carefully tended by my brother, who had a little
bed made for him, and the doctor came daily to see the little patient,
who gratefully accepted his attentions; but, to their disappointment,
he died. The only objection to these monkeys as pets is the power
they have of howling, or rather whooping, a piercing and somewhat
hysterical "Whoop-poo! whoop-poo! whoop-poo!" for several minutes,
till fairly exhausted.

They are very fond of swinging by their long arms, and walk something
like a tipsy sailor. A friend, resident on the frontiers of Assam,
tells me that the full-grown adult pines and dies in confinement.
I think it probable that it may miss a certain amount of insect diet,
and would recommend those who cannot let their pets run loose in a
garden to give them raw eggs and a little minced meat, and a spider
or two occasionally.

In its wild state this Gibbon feeds on leaves, insects, eggs and small
birds. Dr. Anderson notices the following as favourite leaves:
_Moringa pterygosperma_ (horse-radish tree), _Spondias mangifera_
(amra), _Ficus religiosa_ (the pipal), also _Beta vulgaris_; and it
is specially partial to the _Ipomoea reptans_ (the water convolvulus)
and the bright-coloured flowers of the Indian shot (_Canna Indica_).
Of insects it prefers spiders and the Orthoptera; eggs and small birds
are also eagerly devoured.


NO. 2. HYLOBATES LAR.
_The White-handed Gibbon_.

HABITAT.--Arracan, Lower Pegu, Tenasserim, and the Malayan Peninsula.

[Figure: _HYLOBATES LAR_. _HYLOBATES HOOLUCK_.]

DESCRIPTION.--"This species is generally recognisable by its pale
yellowish, almost white hands and feet, by the grey, almost white,
supercilium, whiskers and beard, and by the deep black of the rest
of the pelage."--_Anderson_.

SIZE.--About same as _H. hooluck_.

It is, however, found in every variety of colour, from black to
brownish, and variegated with light-coloured patches, and
occasionally of a fulvous white. For a long time I supposed it to
be synonymous with _H. agilis_ of Cuvier, or _H. variegatus_ of
Temminck, but both Mr. Blyth and Dr. Anderson separate it. Blyth
mentions a significant fact in distinguishing the two Indian Gibbons,
whatever be their variations of colour, viz.: "_H. hooluck_ has
constantly a broad white frontal band either continuous or divided
in the middle, while _H. lar_ has invariably white hands and feet,
less brightly so in some, and a white ring encircling the visage,
which is seldom incomplete."[3]

[Footnote 3: There is an excellent coloured drawing by Wolf of these
two Gibbons in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1870,
page 86, from which I have partly adapted the accompanying sketch.]

_H. lar_ has sometimes the index and middle fingers connected by a
web, as in the case of _H. syndactylus_ (a Sumatran species very
distinct in other respects). The very closely allied _H. agilis_ has
also this peculiarity in occasional specimens. This Gibbon was
called "_agilis_" by Cuvier from its extreme rapidity in springing
from branch to branch. Duvaucel says: "The velocity of its movements
is wonderful; it escapes like a bird on the wing. Ascending rapidly
to the top of a tree, it then seizes a flexible branch, swings itself
two or three times to gain the necessary impetus, and then launches
itself forward, repeatedly clearing in succession, without effort
and without fatigue, spaces of forty feet."

Sir Stamford Raffles writes that it is believed in Sumatra that it
is so jealous that if in captivity preference be given to one over
another, the neglected one will die of grief; and he found that one
he had sickened under similar circumstances and did not recover till
his rival (a Siamang, _H. syndactylus_) was removed.


NO. 3. _HYLOBATES SYNDACTYLUS_.
_The Siamang_.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim Province, Sumatra, Malayan Peninsula.

DESCRIPTION.--A more robust and thick-set animal than the two last;
deep, woolly, black fur; no white supercilium nor white round the
face. The skull is distinguished from the skull of the other Gibbons,
according to Dr. Anderson, by the greater forward projection of the
supraorbital ridges, and by its much deeper face, and the occipital
region more abruptly truncated than in the other species. The index
and middle toes of the foot are united to the last phalange.

SIZE.--About three feet.

This Gibbon is included in the Indian group on the authority of Helfer,
who stated it to be found in the southern parts of the Tenasserim
province. Blyth mentions another distinguishing characteristic--it
is not only larger than the other Gibbons, but it possesses an
inflatable laryngeal sac. Its arms are immense--five feet across in
an adult of three feet high.

The other species of this genus inhabiting adjacent and other
countries are _H. Pileatus_ and _H. leucogenys_ in Siam; _H.
leuciscus_, Java; _H. Mulleri_ and _H. concolor_, Borneo.


_GENUS PRESBYTES--CUVIER'S GENUS SEMNOPITHECUS_.

These monkeys are characterised by their slender bodies and long
limbs and tails. Jerdon says the Germans call them Slim-apes. Other
striking peculiarities are the absence of cheek pouches, which, if
present, are but rudimentary. Then they differ from the true monkeys
(_Cercopithecus_) by the form of the last molar tooth in the lower
jaw, which has five tubercles instead of four; and, finally, they
are to be distinguished by the peculiar structure of the stomach,
which is singularly complicated, almost as much so as in the case
of Ruminants, which have four divisions. The stomach of this genus
of monkey consists of three divisions: 1st, a simple cardiac pouch
with smooth parietes; 2nd, a wide sacculated middle portion; 3rd,
a narrow elongated canal, sacculated at first, and of simple
structure towards the termination. Cuvier from this supposes it to
be more herbivorous than other genera, and considers this conclusion
justified by the blunter tubercles of the molars and greater length
of intestines and caecum, all of which point to a vegetable diet.
"The head is round, the face but little produced, having a high facial
angle."--_Jerdon_.

But the _tout ensemble_ of the _Langur_ is so peculiar that no one
who has once been told of a long, loosed-limbed, slender monkey with
a prodigious tail, black face, with overhanging brows of long stiff
black hair, projecting like a pent-house, would fail to recognise
the animal.

The _Hanuman_ monkey is reverenced by the Hindus. Hanuman was the
son of Pavana, god of the winds; his strength was enormous, but in
attempting to seize the sun he was struck by Indra with a thunderbolt
which broke his jaw (_hanu_), whereupon his father shut himself up
in a cave, and would not let a breeze cool the earth till the gods
had promised his son immortality. Hanuman aided Rama in his attack
upon Ceylon, and by his superhuman strength mountains were torn up
and cast into the sea, so as to form a bridge of rocks across the
Straits of Manar.[4]

[Footnote 4: The legend, with native picture, is given in Wilkin's
'Hindoo Mythology.']

The species of this genus of monkey abound throughout the Peninsula.
All Indian sportsmen are familiar with their habits, and have often
been assisted by them in tracking a tiger. Their loud whoops and
immense bounds from tree to tree when excited, or the flashing of
their white teeth as they gibber at their lurking foe, have often
told the shikari of the whereabouts of the object of his search. The
_Langurs_ take enormous leaps, twenty-five feet in width, with
thirty to forty in a drop, and never miss a branch. I have watched
them often in the Central Indian jungles. Emerson Tennent
graphically describes this: "When disturbed their leaps are
prodigious, but generally speaking their progress is not made so much
by _leaping_ as by swinging from branch to branch, using their
powerful arms alternately, and, when baffled by distance, flinging
themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower boughs of an opposite
tree, the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient to
cause a rebound of the branch that carries them upwards again till
they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus continue their
headlong flight."

Jerdon's statement that they can run with great rapidity on all-fours
is qualified by McMaster, who easily ran down a large male on
horseback on getting him out on a plain.

A correspondent of the _Asian_, quoting from the _Indian Medical
Gazette_ for 1870, states that experiments with one of this genus
(_Presbytes entellus_) showed that strychnine has no effect on
_Langurs_--as much as five grains were given within an hour without
effect. "From a quarter to half of a grain will kill a dog in from
five to ten minutes, and even one twenty-fourth of a grain will have
a decided tetanic effect in human beings of delicate
temperament."--_Cooley's Cycl_. Two days after _ten_ grains of
strychnine were dissolved in spirits of wine, and mixed with rum and
water, cold but sweet, which the animal drank with relish, and
remained unhurt.

The same experiment was tried with one of another genus (_Inuus
rhesus_), who rejected the poisoned fruit at once, and on having
strychnine in solution poured down his throat, died.

The _Langur_ was then tried with cyanide of potassium, which he
rejected at once, but on being forced to take a few grains, was dead
in a few seconds.

Although we may not sympathize with those who practise such cruel
experiments as these above alluded to, the facts elucidated are worth
recording, and tend to prove the peculiar herbivorous nature of this
genus, which, in common with other strictly herbivorous animals,
instinctively knows what to choose and what to avoid, and can partake,
without danger, of some of the most virulent vegetable poisons. It
is possible that in the forests they eat the fruit of the _Strychnos
nux-vomica_, which is also the favourite food of the pied hornbill
(_Hydrocissa coronata_).


NO. 4. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES ENTELLUS.
_The Bengal Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 1_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Langur_, _Hanuman_, Hindi; _Wanur_ and _Makur_,
Mahratti; _Musya_, Canarese.

HABITAT.--Bengal and Central India.

[Figure: _Presbytes entellus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Pale dirty or ashy grey; darker on the shoulders and
rump; greyish-brown on the tail; paler on the head and lower parts;
hands and feet black.

SIZE.--Length of male thirty inches to root of tail; tail forty-three
inches.

The _Entellus_ monkey is in some parts of India deemed sacred, and
is permitted by the Hindus to plunder their grain-shops with
impunity; but I think that with increasing hard times the _Hanumans_
are not allowed such freedom as they used to have, and in most parts
of India I have been in they are considered an unmitigated nuisance,
and the people have implored the aid of Europeans to get rid of their
tormentors. In the forest the _Langur_ lives on grain, fruit, the
pods of leguminous trees, and young buds and leaves. Sir Emerson
Tennent notices the fondness of an allied species for the flowers
of the red hibiscus (_H. rosa sinensis_). The female has usually only
one young one, though sometimes twins. The very young babies have
not black but light-coloured faces, which darken afterwards. I have
always found them most difficult to rear, requiring almost as much
attention as a human baby. Their diet and hours of feeding must be
as systematically arranged; and if cow's milk be given it must be
freely diluted with water--two-thirds to one-third milk when very
young, and afterwards decreased to one-half. They are extremely
susceptible to cold. In confinement they are quiet and gentle whilst
young, but the old males are generally sullen and treacherous. Jerdon
says, on the authority of the _Bengal Sporting Magazine_ (August
1836), that the males live apart from the females, who have only one
or two old males with each colony, and that they have fights at
certain seasons, when the vanquished males receive charge of all the
young ones of their own sex, with whom they retire to some
neighbouring jungle. Blyth notices that in one locality he found only
males of all ages, and in another chiefly females. I have found these
monkeys mostly on the banks of streams in the forests of the Central
Provinces; in fact, the presence of them anywhere in arid jungles
is a sign that water is somewhere in the vicinity. They are timid
creatures, and I have never seen the slightest disposition about them
to show fight, whereas I was once most deliberately charged by the
old males of a party of _Rhesus_ monkeys. I was at the time on field
service during the Mutiny, and, seeing several nursing mothers in
the party, tried to run them down in the open and secure a baby; but
they were too quick for me, and, on being attacked by the old males,
I had to pistol the leader.


NO. 5. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES SCHISTACEUS.[5]
_The Himalayan Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 2_).

[Footnote 5: Mr. J. Cockburn, of the Imperial Museum, has, since I
wrote about the preceding species, given me some interesting
information regarding the geographical distribution of _Presbytes
entellus_ and _Hylobates hooluck_. He says: "The latter has never
been known to occur on the north bank of the Brahmaputra, though
swarming in the forests at the very water's edge on the south bank.
The _entellus_ monkey is also not found on the north bank of the
Ganges, and attempts at its introduction have repeatedly failed."
_P. schistaceus_ replaces it in the Sub-Himalayan forests.]

NATIVE NAMES.--_Langur_, Hindi; _Kamba Suhu_, Lepcha; _Kubup_, Bhotia.

HABITAT.--The whole range of the Himalayas from Nepal to beyond Simla.

DESCRIPTION (after Hodgson).--Dark slaty above; head and lower parts
pale yellowish; hands concolorous with body, or only a little darker;
tail slightly tufted; hair on the crown of the head short and
radiated; on the cheeks long, directed backwards, and covering the
ears. Hutton's description is, dark greyish, with pale hands and feet,
white head, dark face, white throat and breast, and white tip to the
tail.

SIZE.--About thirty inches; tail, thirty-six inches.

Captain Hutton, writing from Mussoorie, says: "On the Simla side I
observed them also, leaping and playing about, while the fir-trees,
among which they sported, were loaded with snow-wreaths, at an
elevation of 11,000 feet."--'Jour. As. Soc. Beng.' xiii. p. 471.

Dr. Anderson remarks on the skull of this species, that it can be
easily distinguished from _entellus_ by its larger size, the
supraorbital ridge being less forwardly projected, and not forming
so thick and wide a pent roof, but the most marked difference lies
in the much longer facial portion of _schistaceus_; the teeth are
also larger; the symphysis or junction of the lower jaw is
considerably longer and broader, and the lower jaw itself is
generally more massive and deep.


NO. 6. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES PRIAMUS.
_The Madras Langur_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Gandangi_, Telugu.

HABITAT.--The Coromandel Coast and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Ashy grey, with a pale reddish or _chocolat-au-lait_
tint overlying the whole back and head; sides of the head, chin,
throat, and beneath pale yellowish; hands and feet whitish; face,
palms and fingers, and soles of feet and toes black; hair long and
straight, not wavy; tail of the colour of the darker portion of the
back, ending in a whitish tuft.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--About the same as _P. entellus_.

Blyth, who is followed by Jerdon, describes this monkey as having
a compressed high vertical crest, but Dr. Anderson found that the
specimens in the Indian Museum owed these crests to bad stuffing.
Kellaart, however, mentions it, and calls the animal "the Crested
Monkey." In Sir Emerson Tennent's figure of _P. priamus_ a slight
crest is noticeable; but Kellaart is very positive on this point,
saying: "_P. priamus_ is easily distinguished from all other known
species of monkeys in Ceylon by its high compressed vertical crest."

Jerdon says this species is not found on the Malabar Coast, but
neither he nor McMaster give much information regarding it. Emerson
Tennent writes: "At Jaffna, and in other parts of the island where
the population is comparatively numerous, these monkeys become so
familiarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring
and indifference. A flock of them will take possession of a palmyra
palm, and so effectually can they crouch and conceal themselves among
the leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole party becomes
invisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such
irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they
never fail to betray themselves. They may be frequently seen
congregated on the roof of a native hut; and, some years ago, the
child of a European clergyman, stationed near Jaffna, having been
left on the ground by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them
as to cause its death."

In these particulars this species resembles _P. entellus_.


NO. 7. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES JOHNII.
_The Malabar Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 4_).

HABITAT.--The Malabar Coast, from N. Lat. 14 degrees or 15 degrees
to Cape Comorin.

DESCRIPTION.--Above dusky brown, slightly paling on the sides; crown,
occiput, sides of head and beard fulvous, darkest on the crown; limbs
and tail dark brown, almost black; beneath yellowish white.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Not quite so large as _P. entellus_.

This monkey was named after a member of the Danish factory at
Tranquebar, M. John, who first described it. It abounds in forests,
and does not frequent villages, though it will visit gardens and
fields, where, however, it shuns observation.

The young are of a sooty brown, or nearly black, without any
indication of the light-coloured hood of the adult.


NO. 8. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES JUBATUS.
_The Nilgheri Langur_ (_Jerdon's No. 5_).

HABITAT.--The Nilgheri Hills, the Animallies, Pulneys, the Wynaad,
and all the higher parts of the range of the Ghats as low as
Travancore.

DESCRIPTION.--Dark glossy black throughout, except head and nape,
which are reddish brown; hair very long; in old individuals a greyish
patch on the rump.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Length of head and body, 26 inches; tail, 30.

This monkey does not, as a rule, descend lower than 2,500 to 3,000
feet; it is shy and wary. The fur is fine and glossy, and is much
prized (Jerdon). Its flesh is excellent food for dogs (McMaster).

Dr. Anderson makes this synonymous with the last.


NO. 9. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES PILEATUS.
_The Capped Langur_.

HABITAT.--Assam, Chittagong, Tipperah.

DESCRIPTION.--General colour dark ashy grey, with a slight
ferruginous tint; darker near head and on shoulders; underneath and
on the inside of the limbs pale yellowish, with a darker shade of
orange or golden yellow on the breast and belly. The crown of the
head is densely covered with bristly hairs, regularly disposed and
somewhat elongated on the vertex so as to resemble a cap, whence the
name. Along the forehead is a superciliary crest of long black
bristles, directed outwardly; whiskers full and down to the chin:
behind the ears is a small tuft of white hairs; the tail is long,
one third longer than the body, darker near the end, and tufted;
fingers and toes black.

SIZE.--A little smaller than _P. entellus_.

This monkey is found in Northern Assam, Tipperah and southwards to
Tenasserim; in Blyth's 'Catalogue of the Mammals of Burmah' it is
mentioned as _P. chrysogaster_ (_Semnopithecus potenziani_ of
Bonaparte and Peters). He writes of it: "Females and young have the
lower parts white, or but faintly tinted with ferruginous, and the
rest of the coat is of a pure grey; the face black, and there is no
crest, but the hairs of the crown are so disposed as to appear like
a small flat cap laid upon the top of the head. The old males seem
always to be of a deep rust-colour on the cheeks, lower parts, and
more or less on the outer side of the limbs; while in old females
this rust colour is diluted or little more than indicated."

Dr. Anderson says that a young one he had was of a mild disposition,
which however is not the character of the adult animal, which is
uncertain, and the males when irritated are fierce, and determined
in attack. No rule, however, is without its exception, for one adult
male, possessed by Blyth, is reported as having been an exceeding
gentle animal.


NO. 10. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES BARBEI.
_The Tipperah Langur_.

HABITAT.--Tipperah, Tenasserim.

DESCRIPTION.--No vertical crest of hair on the head, nor is the
occipital hair directed downwards, as in the next species. Shoulders
and outside of arm silvered; tail slightly paler than body, "which
is of a blackish fuliginous hue."

More information is required about this monkey, which was named by
Blyth after its donor to the Asiatic Society, the Rev. J. Barbe. Blyth
considered it as distinct from _P. Phayrei_ and _P. obscurus_, which
last is from Malacca.

Dr. Anderson noticed it in the valley of the Tapeng in the centre
of the Kakhyen Hills, in troops of thirty to fifty, in high forest
trees overhanging the mountain streams. Being seldom disturbed, they
permitted a near approach.


NO. 11. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES PHAYREI.
_Syn_.--SEMNOPITHECUS CRISTATUS.
_The Silvery-Leaf Monkey_ (_Blyth_).

HABITAT.--Arracan, Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo.

DESCRIPTION.-Colour dusky grey-brown above, more or less dark, with
black hands and feet; a conspicuous crest on the vertex; under parts
white, scarcely extending to the inside of the limbs; sides grey like
the back; whiskers dark, very long, concealing the ears in front;
lips and eyelids conspicuously white, with white moustachial hairs
above and similar hairs below.

SIZE.--Two feet; tail, 2 feet 6 inches.

This monkey was named by Blyth after Captain (now Sir Arthur) Phayre,
who first brought it to his notice; but he afterwards reconciled it
as being synonymous with _Semnopithecus cristatus_. The colouring,
according to different authors, seems to vary considerably, which
causes some confusion in description. It differs from an allied
species, _S. maurus_, in selecting low marshy situations near the
banks of streams. Its favourite food is the fruit of the Nibong palm
(_Oncosperma filamentosa_).


NO. 12. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES OBSCURUS.
_The Dusky-Leaf Monkey_.

HABITAT.--Mergui and the Malayan Peninsula.

DESCRIPTION.--Adults ashy or brownish black, darker on forehead,
sides of face, shoulder, and sides of body; the hair on the nape is
lengthened and whitish. The newly-born young are of a golden
ferruginous colour, which afterward changes to dusky-ash colour, the
terminal half of the tail being last to change; the mouth and eyelids
are whitish, but the rest of the face black.

SIZE.--Body, 1 foot 9 inches; tail, 2 feet 8 inches.

This monkey is most common in the Malayan Peninsula, but has been
found to extend to Mergui, where Blyth states it was procured by the
late Major Berdmore. Dr. Anderson says it is not unfrequently offered
for sale in the Singapore market.


NO. 13. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES CEPHALOPTERUS.
_The Ceylon Langur_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Kallu Wanderu_.

HABITAT.--The low lands of Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--General colour cinereous black; croup and inside of
thighs whitish; head rufescent brown; hair on crown short,
semi-erect; occipital hairs long, albescent; whiskers white, thick
and long, terminating at the chin in a short beard, and laterally
angularly pointed; upper lip thinly fringed with white hairs;
superciliary hairs black, long, stiff and standing erect; tail
albescent and terminating in a beard tuft; face, palms, soles,
fingers, toes and callosities black; irides brown.--_Kellaart_.

SIZE.--Length, 20 inches; tail 24 inches.

Sir E. Tennent says of this monkey that it is never found at a higher
elevation than 1,300 feet (when it is replaced by the next species).

"It is an active and intelligent creature, little larger than the
common bonneted macaque, and far from being so mischievous as others
of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is remarkable for the
gravity of its demeanour and for an air of melancholy in its
expression and movements, which are completely in character with its
snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition it is gentle and
confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness, and eager for
endearing attention, uttering a low plaintive cry when its
sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habits when
domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its fur and
carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust. Those which I kept
at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed upon plantains and bananas,
but for nothing did they evince a greater partiality than the
rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (_H. rosa sinensis_).
These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished
the leaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the
more succulent ones."


NO. 14. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES URSINUS.
_The Great Wanderu_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Maha Wanderu_.

HABITAT.--The mountainous district of Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur long, almost uniformly greyish black; whiskers
full and white; occiput and croup in old specimens paler coloured;
hands and feet blackish; tail long, getting lighter towards the lower
half. The young and adults under middle age have a rufous tint,
corresponding with that of the head of all ages.

SIZE.--Body about 22 inches; tail, 26 inches.

The name Wanderu is a corruption of the Singhalese generic word for
monkey, _Ouandura_, or _Wandura_, which bears a striking resemblance
to the Hindi _Bandra_, commonly called _Bandar_--_b_ and _v_ being
interchangeable--and is evidently derived from the Sanscrit _Banur_,
which in the south again becomes _Wanur_, and further south, in
Ceylon, _Wandura_. There has been a certain amount of confusion
between this animal and _Inuus silenus_, the lion monkey, which had
the name _Wanderu_ applied to it by Buffon, and it is so figured in
Cuvier. They are both large monkeys, with great beards of light
coloured hair, but in no other respect do they resemble. Sir Emerson
Tennent says: "It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the
country having till very recently been but partially opened; and even
now it is difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches
the few roads which wind through these deep solitudes. At early
morning, ere the day begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which
consists of quick repetition of the sound _how-how!_ may be
frequently heard in the mountain jungles, and forms one of the
characteristic noises of these lofty situations." This was written
in 1861; since then much of the mountainous forest land has been
cleared for coffee-planting, and the Wanderu either driven into
corners or become more familiarised with man. More therefore must
be known of its habits by this time, and information regarding it
is desirable.


NO. 15. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES THERSITES.

NATIVE NAME.--_Ellee Wanderu_ (Kellaart).

HABITAT.--Ceylon.

[Figure: _Presbytes thersites_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Chiefly distinguished from the others by wanting the
head tuft; uniform dusky grey, darker on crown and fore-limbs; slaty
brown on wrists and hands; hair on toes whitish; whiskers and beard
largely developed and conspicuously white.

The name was given by Blyth to a single specimen forwarded by Dr.
Templeton, and it was for a time doubtful whether it was really a
native, till Dr. Kellaart procured a second. Dr. Templeton's
specimen was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains, and fruit, but
he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was fond of being
noticed and petted, stretching out his limbs in succession to be
scratched, drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached by
the finger, closing his eyes during the operation, and evincing his
satisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.--_Emerson
Tennent_.

Dr. Anderson considers this monkey as identical with _Semnopithecus
priamus_, but Kellaart, as I have before stated, is very positive
on the point of difference, calling _S. priamus_ emphatically the
crested monkey, and alleging that _thersites_ has no crest, and it
is probable he had opportunities of observing the two animals in
life; he says he had a young specimen of _priamus_, which distinctly
showed the crest, and a young _thersites_ of the same age which showed
no sign of it.

In Emerson Tennent's 'Natural History of Ceylon,' (1861) page 5,
there is a plate of a group in which are included _priamus_ and
_thersites_; in the original they are wrongly numbered--the former
should be 2 and not 3, and the latter 3 and not 2. If these be correct
(and Wolf's name should be a voucher for their being so) there is
a decided difference. There is no crest in the latter, and the white
whiskers terminate abruptly on a level with the eyebrow, and the
superciliary ridge of hair is wanting.


NO. 16. SEMNOPITHECUS _vel_ PRESBYTES ALBINUS (_Kellaart_).
_The White Langur_.

HABITAT.--Ceylon, in the hills beyond Matelle.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur dense, sinuous, nearly of uniform white colour,
with only a slight dash of grey on the head; face and ears black;
palm, soles, fingers and toes flesh-coloured; limbs and body the
shape of _P. ursinus_; long white hairs prolonged over the toes and
claws, giving the appearance of a white spaniel dog to this monkey;
irides brown; whiskers white, full, and pointed laterally.--_Kellaart_.

The above description was taken by Dr. Kellaart from a living
specimen. He considered it to be a distinct species, and not an Albino,
from the black face and ears and brown eyes.

The Kandyans assured him that they were to be seen (rarely however)
in small parties of three and four over the hills beyond Matelle,
but never in company with the dark kind.

Emerson Tennent also mentions one that was brought to him taken
between Ambepasse and Kornegalle, where they were said to be
numerous; except in colour it had all the characteristics of _P.
cephalopterus_. So striking was its whiteness that it might have been
conjectured to be an Albino, but for the circumstance that its eyes
and face were black. An old writer of the seventeenth century, Knox,
says of the monkeys of Ceylon (where he was captive for some time)
that there are some "milk-white in body and face, but of this sort
there is not such plenty."--_Tennent's 'Natural History of Ceylon,'
page 8_.

NOTE.--Since the above was in type I have found in the List of Animals
in the Zoological Society's Gardens, a species entered as
_Semnopithecus leucoprymnus_, the Purple-faced Monkey from
Ceylon--see P.Z.S.


PAPIONINAE.

This sub-family comprises the true baboons of Africa and the
monkey-like baboons of India. They have the stomach simple, and
cheek-pouches are always present. According to Cuvier they possess,
like the last family, a fifth tubercle on their last molars. They
produce early, but are not completely adult for four or five years;
the period of gestation is seven months.

The third sub-family of _Simiadae_ consists of the genera
_Cercopithicus_, _Macacus_, and _Cynocephalus_, as generally
accepted by modern zoologists, but Jerdon seems to have followed
Ogilby in his classification, which merges the long-tailed Macaques
into _Cercopithecus_, and substituting _Papio_ for the others.


_GENUS INUUS_.

Cuvier applies this term to the Magots or rudimentary-tailed
Macaques. The monkeys of this genus are more compactly built than
those of the last. They are also less herbivorous in their diet,
eating frogs, lizards, crabs and insects, as well as vegetables and
fruit. Their callosities and cheek-pouches are large, and they have
a sac which communicates with the larynx under the thyroid cartilage,
which fills with air when they cry out.

Some naturalists of the day, however, place all under the generic
name Macacus.


NO. 17. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS SILENUS.
_The Lion Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 6_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Nil bandar_, Bengali; _Shia bandar_, Hindi; _Nella
manthi_, Malabari.

HABITAT.--The Western Ghats of India from North Lat. 14 degrees to
the extreme south, but most abundant in Cochin and Travancore
(_Jerdon_), also Ceylon (_Cuvier_ and _Horsfield_), though
not confirmed by Emerson Tennent, who states that the _silenus_ is
not found in the island except as introduced by Arab horse-dealers
occasionally, and that it certainly is not indigenous. Blyth was also
assured by Dr. Templeton of Colombo that the only specimens there
were imported.

[Figure: _Macacus silenus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Black, with a reddish-white hood or beard surrounding
the face and neck; tail with a tuft of whitish hair at the tip; a
little greyish on the chest.

SIZE.--About 24 inches; tail, 10 inches.

There is a plate of this monkey in Carpenter and Westwood's edition
of Cuvier, under the mistaken name of _Wanderoo_.

It is somewhat sulky and savage, and is difficult to get near in a
wild state. Jerdon states that he met with it only in dense
unfrequented forest, and sometimes at a considerable elevation. It
occurs in troops of from twelve to twenty.


NO. 18. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS RHESUS.
_The Bengal Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 7_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Bandar_, Hindi; _Markot_, Bengali; _Suhu_, Lepcha,
_Piyu_, Bhotia.

HABITAT.--India generally from the North to about Lat. 18 degrees
or 19 degrees; but not in the South, where it is replaced by _Macacus
radiatus_.

[Figure: _Macacus rhesus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Above brownish ochrey or rufous; limbs and beneath
ashy-brown; callosities and adjacent parts red; face of adult males
red.

SIZE.--Twenty-two inches; tail 11 inches.

This monkey is too well-known to need description. It is the common
acting monkey of the _bandar-wallas_, the delight of all
Anglo-Indian children, who go into raptures over the romance of
_Munsur-ram_ and _Chameli_, their quarrels, parting, and
reconciliation, so admirably acted by these miniature comedians.

NOTE.--For _Macacus rheso-similis_, Sclater, see P.Z.S. 1872, p. 495,
pl. xxv., also P.Z.S. 1875, p. 418.


NO. 19. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS PELOPS.
_Syn_.--MACACUS ASSAMENSIS.
_The Hill Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 8_).

HABITAT.--The Himalayan ranges and Assam.

DESCRIPTION.--Brownish grey, somewhat mixed with slaty, and rusty
brownish on the shoulders in some; beneath light ashy brown; fur
fuller and more wavy than in _rhesus_; canine teeth long; of stout
habit; callosities and face less red than in the last species
(_Jerdon_). Face flesh-coloured, but interspersed with a few black
hairs (_McClelland_).


NO. 20. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS NEMESTRINUS.
_The Pig-tailed Monkey_.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim and the Malay Archipelago.

[Figure: _Macacus nemestrinus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--General colour grizzled brown; the piles annulated
with dusky and fulvous; crown darker, and the middle of the back also
darker; the hair lengthened on the fore-quarters; the back stripe
extends along the tail, becoming almost black; the tail terminates
in a bright ferruginous tuft. This monkey is noted for its docility,
and in Bencoolen is trained to be useful as well as amusing. According
to Sir Stamford Raffles it is taught to climb the cocoa palms for
the fruit for its master, and to select only those that are ripe.


NO. 21. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS LEONINUS.
_The Long-haired Pig-tailed Monkey_.

HABITAT.--Arracan.

DESCRIPTION.--A thick-set powerful animal, with a broad, rather
flattened head above, and a moderately short, well clad, up-turned
tail, about one-third the length of the body and head; the female
smaller.--_Anderson_.

Face fleshy brown; whitish round the eyes and on the forehead;
eyebrows brownish, a narrow reddish line running out from the
external angle of the eye. The upper surface of the head is densely
covered with short dark fur, yellowish brown, broadly tipped with
black; the hair radiating from the vertex; on and around the ear the
hair is pale grey; above the external orbital angle and on the sides
of the face the hair is dense and directed backwards, pale greyish,
obscurely annulated with dusky brown, and this is prolonged
downwards to the middle of the throat. On the shoulders, back of the
neck, and upper part of the thighs, the hairs are very long, fully
three inches in the first-mentioned localities; the basal halves
greyish; and the remainder ringed with eleven bands of dark brown
and orange; the tips being dark. The middle and small of the back
is almost black, the shorter hair there being wholly dark; and this
colour is prolonged on the tail, which is tufted. The hair on the
chest is annulated, but paler than on the shoulders, and it is
especially dense on the lower part. The lower halves of the limbs
are also well clad with annulated fur, like their outsides, but their
upper halves internally and the belly are only sparsely covered with
long brownish grey plain hairs, not ringed.

The female differs from the male in the absence of the black on the
head and back, and in the hair of the under parts being brownish grey,
without annulations. The shoulders somewhat brighter than the rest
of the fur, which is yellowish olive; greyish olive on outside of
limbs; dusky on upper surface of hands and feet; and black on upper
surface of tail.

SIZE.--Length of male, head and body 23 inches; tail, without hair,
8 inches; with hair 10 inches.

The above description is taken from Dr. Anderson's account, 'Anat.
and Zool. Res.,' where at page 54 will be found a plate of the skull
showing the powerful canine teeth. Blyth mentions a fine male with
hair on the shoulders four to five inches long.


NO. 22. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS ARCTOIDES.
_The Brown Stump-tailed Monkey_.

HABITAT.--Cachar, Kakhyen Hills, east of Bhamo.

DESCRIPTION.--Upper surface of head and along the back dark brown,
almost blackish; sides and limbs dark brown; the hair, which is very
long, is ringed with light yellowish and dark brown, darker still
at the tips; face red; tail short and stumpy, little over an inch
long.

This monkey is one over which many naturalists have argued; it is
synonymous with _Macacus speciosus_, _M. maurus_, _M. melanotus_,
and was thought to be with _M. brunneus_ till Dr. Anderson placed
the latter in a separate species on account of the non-annulation
of its hair. It is essentially a denizen of the hills; it has been
obtained in Cachar and in Upper Assam. Dr. Anderson got it in the
Kakhyen Hills on the frontier of Yunnan, beyond which, he says, it
spreads to the southeast to Cochin-China.


NO. 23. INUUS _vel_ MACACUS THIBETANUS.
_The Thibetan Stump-tailed Monkey_.

DESCRIPTION.--Head large and whiskered; form robust; tail stumpy and
clad; general colour of the animal brown; whiskers greyish; face nude
and flesh-coloured, with a deep crimson flush round the eyes.

SIZE.--Two feet 9 inches; tail about 3 inches.

This large monkey, though not belonging to British India, inhabiting,
it is said, "the coldest and least accessible forests of Eastern
Thibet," is mentioned here, as the exploration of that country by
travellers from India is attracting attention.


_GENUS MACACUS_.

Tail longer than in _Inuus_, and face not so lengthened; otherwise
as in that genus.--_Jerdon_.


NO. 24. MACACUS RADIATUS.
_The Madras Monkey_ (_Jerdon's No. 9_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Bandar_, Hindi; _Makadu_ or _Wanur_, Mahratti;
_Kerda mahr_ of the Ghats; _Munga_, Canarese; _Koti_, Telegu; _Vella
munthi_, Malabar.

HABITAT.--All over the southern parts of India, as far north as lat.
18 degrees.

[Figure: _Macacus radiatus_ and _Macacus pileatus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Of a dusky olive brown, paler and whitish underneath,
ashy on outer sides of limbs; tail dusky brown above, whitish
beneath; hairs on the crown of the head radiated.

SIZE.--Twenty inches; tail 15 inches.

Elliott remarks of this monkey that it inhabits not only the wildest
jungles, but the most populous towns, and it is noted for its audacity
in stealing fruit and grain from shops. Jerdon says: "It is the monkey
most commonly found in menageries, and led about to show various
tricks and feats of agility. It is certainly the most inquisitive
and mischievous of its tribe, and its powers of mimicry are surpassed
by none." It may be taught to turn a wheel regularly; it smokes
tobacco without inconvenience.--_Horsfield_.


NO. 25. MACACUS PILEATUS (_vel_ SINICUS, _Lin_.).
_The Capped Monkey_, or _Bonneted Macaque_ of _Cuvier_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Rilawa_, Singhalese.

HABITAT.--Ceylon and China.

DESCRIPTION.--Yellowish brown, with a slight shade of green in old
specimens; in some the back is light chestnut brown; yellowish brown
hairs on the crown of the head, radiating from the centre to the
circumference; face flesh-coloured and beardless; ears, palms,
soles, fingers, and toes blackish; irides reddish brown; callosities
flesh-coloured; tail longish, terminating in short tuft.--_Kellaart_.

SIZE.--Head and body about 20 inches; tail 18 inches.

This is the _Macacus sinicus_ of Cuvier, and is very similar to the
last species. In Ceylon it takes the place of our rhesus monkey with
the conjurors, who, according to Sir Emerson Tennent, "teach it to
dance, and in their wanderings carry it from village to village, clad
in a grotesque dress, to exhibit its lively performances." It also,
like the last, smokes tobacco; and one that belonged to the captain
of a tug steamer, in which I once went down from Calcutta to the
Sandheads, not only smoked, but chewed tobacco. Kellaart says of it:
"This monkey is a lively, spirited animal, but easily tamed;
particularly fond of making grimaces, with which it invariably
welcomes its master and friends. It is truly astonishing to see the
large quantity of food it will cram down its cheek pouches for future
mastication."


NO. 26. MACACUS CYNOMOLGUS.
_The Crab-eating Macaque_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Kra_, Malay.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim, Nicobars, Malay Archipelago.

[Figure: _Macacus cynomolgus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--"The leading features of this animal are its massive
form, its large head closely set on the shoulders, its stout and
rather short legs, its slender loins and heavy buttocks, its tail
thick at the base" (Anderson). The general colour is similar to that
of the Bengal rhesus monkey, but the skin of the chest and belly is
bluish, the face livid, with a white area between the eyes and white
eyelids. Hands and feet blackish.

SIZE.--About that of the Bengal rhesus.

According to Captain (now Sir Arthur) Phayre "these monkeys frequent
the banks of salt-water creeks and devour shell-fish. In the
cheek-pouch of the female were found the claws and body of a crab.
There is not much on record concerning the habits of this monkey in
its wild state beyond what is stated concerning its partiality for
crabs, which can also, I believe, be said of the rhesus in the Bengal
Sunderbunds."


NO. 27. MACACUS CARBONARIUS.
_The Black-faced Crab-eating Monkey_.

HABITAT.--Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--In all respects the same as the last, except that its
face is blackish, with conspicuously white eyelids.


FAMILY LEMURIDAE.

The Indian members of this family belong to the sub-family named by
Geoffroy _Nycticebinae_.


_GENUS NYCTICEBUS_.


NO. 28. NYCTICEBUS TARDIGRADUS.
_The Slow-paced Lemur_ (_Jerdon's No. 10_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Sharmindi billi_, Hindi.

HABITAT.--Eastern Bengal, Assam, Garo Hills, Sylhet,
Arracan.--_Horsfield_.

[Figure: _Loris gracilis_ and _Nycticebus tardigradus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Dark ashy grey, with a darker band down middle of back,
beneath lighter grey; forehead in some dark, with a narrow white
stripe between the eyes, disappearing above them; ears and round the
eye dark; tail very short.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Length about 14 to 15 inches; tail 5/8 of an inch.

Nocturnal in its habits; sleeping during the day in holes of trees,
and coming out to feed at night. Sir William Jones describes one kept
by him for some time; it appeared to have been gentle, though at times
petulant when disturbed; susceptible of cold; slept from sunrise to
sunset rolled up like a hedgehog. Its food was chiefly plantains,
and mangoes when in season. Peaches, mulberries, and guavas, it did
not so much care for, but it was most eager after grasshoppers, which
it devoured voraciously. It was very particular in the performance
of its toilet, cleaning and licking its fur. Cuvier also notices this
last peculiarity, and with regard to its diet says it eats small birds
as well as insects. These animals are occasionally to be bought in
the Calcutta market. A friend of mine had a pair which were a source
of great amusement to his guests after dinner. (See Appendix C, p.526.)


_GENUS LORIS_.

Body and limbs slender; no tail; eyes very large, almost contiguous;
nose acute.


NO. 29. LORIS GRACILIS.
_The Slender Lemur_ (_Jerdon's No. 11_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Tevangar_, Tamil; _Dewantsipilli_, Telegu. (_Oona
happslava_, Singhalese.--_Kellaart_.)

HABITAT.--Southern India and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Above greyish rufescent (tawny snuff brown:
Kellaart); beneath a paler shade; a white triangular spot on forehead,
extending down the nose; fur short, dense, and soft; ears thin,
rounded (Jerdon). A hooped claw on inner toes; nails of other toes
flat; posterior third of palms and soles hairy (Kellaart).

SIZE.--About 8 inches; arm, 5; leg, 5-1/2.

This, like the last, is also nocturnal in its habits, and from the
extreme slowness of its movements is called in Ceylon "the Ceylon
sloth." Its diet is varied--fruit, flower, and leaf buds, insects,
eggs, and young birds. Sir Emerson Tennent says the Singhalese assert
that it has been known to strangle pea-fowl at night and feast on
the brain, but this I doubt. Smaller birds it might overcome. Jerdon
states that in confinement it will eat boiled rice, plantains, honey
or syrup and raw meat. McMaster, at page 6 of his 'Notes on Jerdon,'
gives an interesting extract from an old account of 'Dr. John Fryer's
Voyage to East India and Bombain,' in which he describes this little
animal as "Men of the Woods, or more truly Satyrs;" asleep during
the day; but at "Night they Sport and Eat." "They had Heads like an
owl. Bodied like a monkey without Tails. Only the first finger of
the Right Hand was armed with a claw like a bird, otherwise they had
hands and feet which they walk upright on, not pronely, as other
Beasts do."

These little creatures double themselves up when they sleep, bending
the head down between their legs. Although so sluggish generally,
Jerdon says they can move with considerable agility when they choose.


SUB-ORDER PLEUROPTERA.--FAMILY GALAEOPITHECIDAE.

There is a curious link between the Lemurs and the Bats in the Colugos.
(_Galaeopithecus_): their limbs are connected with a membrane as in
the Flying Squirrels, by which they can leap and float for a hundred
yards on an inclined plane. They are mild, inoffensive animals,
subsisting on fruits and leaves. Cuvier places them after the Bats,
but they seem properly to link the Lemurs and the frugivorous Bats.
As yet they have not been found in India proper, but are common in
the Malayan Peninsula, and have been found in Burmah.


NO. 30. GALAEOPITHECUS VOLANS.
_The Flying Lemur_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Myook-hloung-pyan_, Burmese.

HABITAT.--Mergui; the Malayan Peninsula.

[Figure: _Galaeopithecus volans_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Fur olive brown, mottled with irregular whitish spots
and blotches; the pile is short, but exquisitely soft; head and brain
very small; tail long and prehensile. The membrane is continued from
each side of the neck to the fore feet; thence to the hind feet, again
to the tip of the tail. This animal is also nocturnal in its habits,
and very sluggish in its motions by day, at which time it usually
hangs from a branch suspended by its fore hands, its mottled back
assimilating closely with the rugged bark of the tree; it is
exclusively herbivorous, possessing a very voluminous stomach, and
long convoluted intestines. Wallace says of it, that its brain is
very small, and it possesses such tenacity of life that it is very
difficult to kill; he adds that it is said to have only one at a birth,
and one he shot had a very small blind naked little creature clinging
closely to its breast, which was quite bare and much wrinkled.
Raffles, however, gives two as the number produced at each birth.
Dr. Cantor says that in confinement plantains constitute the
favourite food, but deprived of liberty it soon dies. In its wild
state it "lives entirely on young fruits and leaves; those of the
cocoanut and _Bombax pentandrum_ are its favourite food, and it
commits great injury to the plantations of these."--_Horsfield's_
'Cat. Mam.' Regarding its powers of flight, Wallace, in his 'Travels
in the Malay Archipelago,' says: "I saw one of these animals run up
a tree in a rather open space, and then glide obliquely through the
air to another tree on which it alighted near its base, and
immediately began to ascend. I paced the distance from one tree to
the other, and found it to be seventy yards, and the amount of descent
not more than thirty-five or forty feet, or less than one in five.
This, I think, proves that the animal must have some power of guiding
itself through the air, otherwise in so long a distance it would have
little chance of alighting exactly upon the trunk."

There is a carefully prepared skeleton of this animal in the Indian
Museum in Calcutta.




ORDER CARNARIA.


CHEIROPTERA.

It may seem strange to many that such an insignificant, weird little
creature as a bat should rank so high in the animal kingdom as to
be but a few removes from man. It has, however, some striking
anatomical affinities with the last Order, _Quadrumana_, sufficient
to justify its being placed in the next link of the great chain of
creation.

[Figure: Sternum of _Pteropus_.]

"Bats have the arms, fore-arms and fingers excessively elongated,
so as to form with the membrane that occupies their intervals, real
wings, the surface of which is equally or more extended than in those
of birds. Hence they fly high and with great rapidity."--_Cuvier_.
They suckle their young at the breast, but some of them have pubic
warts resembling mammae. The muscles of the chest are developed in
proportion, and the sternum has a medial ridge something like that
of a bird. They are all nocturnal, with small eyes (except in the
case of the frugivorous bats), large ears, and in some cases
membranous appendages to the nostrils, which may possibly be for the
purpose of guiding themselves in the dark, for it is proved by
experiment that bats are not dependent on eyesight for guidance, and
one naturalist has remarked that, in a certain species of bat which
has no facial membrane, this delicacy of perception was absent. I
have noticed this in one species, _Cynopterus marginatus_, one of
which flew into my room not long ago, and which repeatedly dashed
itself against a glass door in its efforts to escape. I had all the
other doors closed.

Bats are mostly insectivorous; a few are fruit-eaters, such as our
common flying-fox. They produce from one to two at a birth, which
are carried about by the mother and suckled at the breast, this
peculiarity being one of the anatomical details alluded to as
claiming for the bats so high a place.

Bats are divided into four sub-families--Pteropodidae, Vampyridae,
Noctilionidae, and Vespertilionidae.


MEGACHIROPTERA.


SUB-FAMILY PTEROPODIDAE.


_GENUS PTEROPUS_.

These are frugivorous bats of large size, differing, as remarked by
Jerdon, so much in their dentition from the insectivorous species
that they seem to lead through the flying Lemurs (_Colugos_) directly
to the _Quadrumana_. The dentition is more adapted to their diet;
they have cutting incisors to each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns,
and their intestines are longer than those of the insectivorous bats.
They produce but one at birth, and the young ones leave their parents
as soon as they can provide for themselves. The tongue is covered
with rough papillae. They have no tail. These bats and some of the
following genus, which are also frugivorous, are distinguished from
the rest of the bats by a claw on the first or index finger, which
is short.

Dental formula: Inc., 4/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/3--3;
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 31. PTEROPUS EDWARDSII _vel_ MEDIUS.
_The Common Flying Fox_ (_Jerdon's No. 12_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Badul_, Bengali and Mahratti; _Wurbagul_, Hindi;
_Toggul bawali_, Canarese; _Sikurayi_, Telegu.

HABITAT.--All through India, Ceylon, and Burmah.

[Figure: The Flying Fox at Home.]

DESCRIPTION.--Head and nape rufous black; neck and shoulders golden
yellow (the hair longer); back dark brown; chin dark; rest of body
beneath fulvous or rusty brown; interfemoral membrane brownish
black.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Length, 12 to 14 inches; extent of wings, 46 to 52 inches.

These bats roost on trees in vast numbers. I have generally found
them to prefer tamarinds of large size. Some idea of the extent of
these colonies may be gathered from observations by McMaster, who
attempted to calculate the number in a colony. He says: "In five
minutes a friend and I counted upwards of six hundred as they passed
over head, _en route_ to their feeding grounds; supposing their
nightly exodus to continue for twenty minutes, this would give
upwards of two thousand in one roosting place, exclusive of those
who took a different direction."

[Figure: Head of _Pteropus medius_.]

Tickell's account of these colonies is most graphic, though Emerson
Tennent has also given a most interesting and correct account of
their habits. The former writes:--"From the arrival of the first
comer until the sun is high above the horizon, a scene of incessant
wrangling and contention is enacted among them, as each endeavours
to secure a higher and better place, or to eject a neighbour from
too close vicinage. In these struggles the bats hook themselves along
the branches, scrambling about hand over hand with some speed, biting
each other severely, striking out with the long claw of the thumb,
shrieking and cackling without intermission. Each new arrival is
compelled to fly several times round the tree, being threatened from
all points, and, when he eventually hooks on, he has to go through
a series of combats, and be probably ejected two or three times before
he makes good his tenure." For faithful portraying, no one could
improve on this description. These bats are exceeding strong on the
wing. I was aware that they went long distances in search of food,
but I was not aware of the power they had for sustained flight till
the year 1869, when, on my way to England on furlough, I discovered
a large flying fox winging his way towards our vessel, which was at
that time more than two hundred miles from land. Exhausted, it clung
on to the fore-yard arm; and a present of a rupee induced a Lascar
to go aloft and seize it, which he did after several attempts. The
voracity with which it attacked some plantains showed that it had
been for some time deprived of food, probably having been blown off
shore by high winds. Hanging head-downwards from its cage, it stuffed
the fruit into its cheeks, monkey-fashion, and then seemed to chew
it at leisure. When I left the steamer at Suez it remained in the
captain's possession, and seemed to be tame and reconciled to its
imprisonment, tempered by a surfeit of plantains. In flying over
water they frequently dip down to touch the surface. Jerdon was in
doubt whether they did this to drink or not, but McMaster feels sure
that they do this in order to drink, and that the habit is not peculiar
to the _Pteropodidae_, as he has noticed other bats doing the same.
Colonel Sykes states that he "can personally testify that their flesh
is delicate and without disagreeable flavour;" and another colonel
of my acquaintance once regaled his friends on some flying fox
cutlets, which were pronounced "not bad." Dr. Day accuses these bats
of intemperate habits; drinking the toddy from the earthen pots on
the cocoanut trees, and flying home intoxicated. The wild almond is
a favourite fruit.

Mr. Rainey, who has been a careful observer of animals for years,
states that in Bengal these bats prefer clumps of bamboos for a
resting place, and feed much on the fruit of the betel-nut palm when
ripe. Another naturalist, Mr. G. Vidal, writes that in Southern India
the _P. medius_ feeds chiefly on the green drupe or nut of the
Alexandrian laurel (_Calophyllum inophyllum_), the kernels of which
contain a strong-smelling green oil on which the bats fatten
amazingly; and then they in turn yield, when boiled down, an oil which
is recommended as an excellent stimulative application for the hair.
I noticed in Seonee a curious superstition to the effect that a bone
of this bat tied on to the ankle by a cord of black cowhair is a
sovereign remedy, according to the natives, for rheumatism in the
leg. Tickell states that these bats produce one at a time in March
or April, and they continue a fixture on the mother till the end of
May or beginning of June.


NO. 32. PTEROPUS LESCHENAULTII (CYNONYCTERIS AMPLEXICAUDATA).
_The Fulvous Fox-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 13_).

Dobson places this bat in the sub-group _Cynonycteris_. It seems to
differ from _Pteropus_ only, as far as I can see, in having a small
distinct tail, though the above-quoted author considers it closely
allied to the next genus.

HABITAT.--The Carnatic, Madras and Trichinopoly; stated also
procurable at Calcutta and Pondicherry (_Jerdon_); Ceylon
(_Kellaart_).

DESCRIPTION.--Fur short and downy; fulvous ashy, or dull light ashy
brown colour, denser and paler beneath; the hairs whitish at the
base; membranes dark brown.

SIZE.--Length, 5 to 5-1/2 inches; extent of wing, 18 to 20 inches.

More information is required regarding the habits of this bat.


_GENUS CYNOPTERUS_.

This genus has four molars less than the last, a shorter muzzle; the
cheek-bones or zygomatic arch more projecting; tongue rather longer
and more tapering, and slightly extensile.

Dental formula: Inc., 4/4 or 4/2; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars,
2--2/3--3; molars, 2--2/2--2.


NO. 33. CYNOPTERUS MARGINATUS.
_The Small Fox-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 14_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Chamgadili_, Hindi; _Coteekan voulha_, Singhalese.

HABITAT.--India generally, and Ceylon.

[Figure: _Cynopterus marginatus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--General colour fulvous olivaceous, paler beneath and
with an ashy tinge; ears with a narrow margin of white (_Jerdon_.)
A reddish smear on neck and shoulders of most specimens; membranes
dusky brown. Females paler (_Kellaart_).

SIZE.--Length, 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 inches; extent of wing, 17 to 20
inches.

This bat is found all over India; it is frugivorous exclusively,
though some of this sub-order are insectivorous. Blyth says he kept
some for several weeks; they would take no notice of the buzz of an
insect held to them, but are ravenous eaters of fruit, each devouring
its own weight at a meal, voiding its food but little changed whilst
slowly munching away; of guava it swallows the juice only. Blyth's
prisoners were females, and after a time they attracted a male which
hovered about them for some days, roosting near them in a dark
staircase; he was also caught, with one of the females who had escaped
and joined him. Dr. Dobson writes that in three hours one of these
bats devoured twice its own weight. This species usually roosts in
trees.


NO. 34. MACROGLOSSUS (PTEROPUS) MINIMUS.
_The Tenasserim Fox-Bat_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Lowo-assu_ (dog-bat), Javanese.

HABITAT.--The Himalayas, Burmah, Tenasserim, and the Indian
Archipelago.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears half length of head, narrow and rounded at tip;
face abruptly narrowed in front of eyes; muzzle long, narrow,
cylindrical; lower jaw slightly projecting; eyes large; tongue very
long, last third attenuated, covered with brush-like papillae;
interfemoral membrane very narrow, especially at root of tail; fur
reddish brown, and very long.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-3/10 inches.

Like other _Pteropi_ this bat feeds on fruit of every description,
but particularly attacks the various cultivated varieties of
_Eugenia_ (Jamoon).


_GENUS EONYCTERIS_.

Muzzle long and cylindrical; nostrils scarcely projecting; upper lip
with a shallow vertical groove in front; _index finger without a
claw_; thumb short; part of the terminal phalanx included in the wing
membrane; metacarpal bone of the second finger equal to the index
finger in length; tail short and distinct; the base contained in the
narrow interfemoral membrane; tongue long, as in _Macroglossus_.

Dentition: Inc., 4/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars,
3--3/3--3.


NO. 35. EONYCTERIS SPELAEA.

HABITAT.--Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--Head long; muzzle narrow, cylindrical, abruptly
narrowed in front of the eyes; nostrils with an intervening
emargination, which also passes down to the lips; tongue very long
and pointed; ears conical, with rounded tips; body clothed with very
short and thinly-spread fur of a uniform dark brown colour; the fur
on the head extends only as far as the inner corners of the eye,
leaving the rest of the face naked; tail half an inch. On each side,
and a little behind the anal opening, are two small, kidney-shaped
subcutaneous glandular bodies.

SIZE.--Head and body, 4 inches; tail, 1/2 inch.

Found in Farm Caves, Moulmein. The absence of the claw on the index
finger is specially to be noted.


MICROCHIROPTERA.


SUB-FAMILY VAMPYRIDAE.


_GENUS MEGADERMA_.

Bats with simple or complicated nose-leaves or membranes. The conch
of the ear very large, and joined together on the top of the head;
tragus large and bifurcated; nasal membranes complicated; no tail;
wings remarkably ample. They have four incisors below but none above,
the intermaxillaries remaining cartilaginous.

Dental formula: Inc., 0/4; can., 1--1/1--1; pre-m., 2--2/2--2;
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 36. MEGADERMA LYRA.
_The Large-eared Vampire Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 15_).

HABITAT.--India and Ceylon.

[Figure: _Megaderma lyra_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Above ashy blue, slaty or pale mouse colour; albescent
or yellowish ashy beneath; nasal appendage large, oblong, free at
the tip, reaching to the base of the ears with a fold down the centre;
tragus (_oreillon_) cordate, two-lobed, anterior long, narrow and
pointed, posterior lobe half the height and rounded; muzzle
truncated; under-lip cleft; wing membranes dark brown.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3 or 3-1/2 inches; wing extent, 14 to 19 inches.

Very abundant in old buildings. They are beyond doubt blood-suckers.
Blyth noticed one fly into his room one evening with a small
_vespertilio_, which it dropped on being chased. The smaller bat was
weak from loss of blood, and next morning (the Megaderm having been
caught), on both bats being put into the same cage, the little one
was again attacked and devoured; it was seized both times behind the
ear. McMaster writes that in Rangoon he had a tame canary killed by
a bat, and the bird's mate soon afterwards was destroyed in the same
way. The case was clearly proved.

Mr. Frith informed Mr. Blyth that these bats were in the habit of
resorting to the verandah of his house at Mymensing, and that every
morning the ground under them was strewed with the hind quarters of
frogs, and the wings of large grasshoppers and crickets. On one
occasion the remains of a small fish were observed; but frogs
appeared to be their chief diet--never toads; and of a quiet evening
these animals could be distinctly heard crunching the heads and
smaller bones of their victims.


NO. 37. MEGADERMA SPECTRUM.
_The Cashmere Vampire_ (_Jerdon's No. 16_).

HABITAT.--Cashmere.

DESCRIPTION.--Above slaty cinereous, whitish beneath; the vertical
nose-leaf of moderate size, oval; inner lobe of tragus ovate
(_Jerdon_).

SIZE.--Two and three-quarter inches.

Dobson makes this bat synonymous with the last.


NO. 38. MEGADERMA SPASMA.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim, Ceylon.

[Figure: _Megaderma spasma_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle, ear-conch, and tragus similar to those of _M.
lyra_; the posterior portion of the tragus, however, is longer and
more attenuated upwards, and more acutely pointed; the nose-leaf is
shorter, with convex sides; but the anterior concave disc is
considerably larger, and the base of the thickened process is
cordate; thumbs and wings as in _M. lyra_; interfemoral membrane
deeper; the calcaneum stronger; colour the same.

SIZE.--Head and body, about 3 inches. This bat is alluded to by Jerdon
as _M. Horsfieldii_.


RHINOLOPHINAE.

Nasal leaf complicated, and crests resting on the forehead,
presenting more or less the figure of a horse-shoe; tail long and
placed in the interfemoral membrane; ears large, but separate, and
not joined at the base, as in the last genus; without a tragus, but
often with a lobe at the base of the outer margin; wings large and
long; forefinger of a single joint.


_GENUS RHINOLOPHUS_.

Nose-leaf cordate, or semi-orbicular, bi-lobed in front of the
nostrils; a longitudinal crest along the nose and an erect frontal
leaf posteriorly more or less lanceolate.--_Jerdon_.

Dental formula: Inc., 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2;
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 39. RHINOLOPHUS PERNIGER _vel_ LUCTUS.
_The Large Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 17_).

HABITAT.--Nepaul, Darjeeling, Khasya Hills.

[Figure: _Rhinolophus luctus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Ears very large, much longer than the head; broad,
acutely pointed; nasal apparatus very complicated; the lower leaf
very large, concealing the upper lip like a door knocker; the upper
leaf like a graduated spire; ears transversely striate; a rather
large semi-circular lobe at base of ear; fur long, dense, soft, and
lax, slightly curled or woolly black with a silvery grizzle, or
greyish-black or rich chestnut-brown.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Length, 3-3/4; tail, 1-3/4; wing expanse, 17 inches.


NO. 40. RHINOLOPHUS MITRATUS.
_The Mitred Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 18_).

HABITAT.--Chybassa, Central India, Mussoorie(?)

DESCRIPTION.--Ears large; anti-helix moderately developed; upper
leaf triangular acute; tail extending beyond the tibia; color above
light brown; paler beneath.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; wing expanse,
12 to 14 inches.


NO. 41. RHINOLOPHUS TRAGATUS _vel_ FERRUM-EQUINUM.
_The Dark-brown Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 19_).

HABITAT.--Nepaul, Mussoorie.

[Figure: _Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Upper process like a barbed spear-head; central one
small and narrow, a little expanded at the summit; anti-tragus less
developed than usual; lips simple; colour a uniform deep brown, with
tips of the hair paler, and somewhat rusty.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-5/8 inches; tail, 1-7/8 inch; wing, 15-1/2
inches.

The tail of this species seems unusually long. It is found in cavities
of rock, and issues forth soon after dusk--sooner, according to
Hodgson, than the species of _vespertilio_.


NO. 42. RHINOLOPHUS PEARSONII.
_Pearson's Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 20_).

HABITAT.--Lower Himalayan range, Darjeeling, Mussoorie, &c.

DESCRIPTION.--Colour above dark brown, with a slight shade of
chestnut; underneath brown, with a sooty cast; fur very long, dense
and soft; ears distinct, with an additional rounded lobe below,
measuring anteriorly nearly three-fourths of an inch; point of the
facial crest moderately developed; length from the tip of the nose
to root of tail three inches; tail half an inch; length of fore-arm
two inches; expanse of the wings eleven inches. Although allied to
Mr. Hodgson's _R. tragatus_, possesses distinct characters.--_Horsfield_.

SIZE.--As given by Horsfield above.

This bat was first sent from Darjeeling by Mr. J. T. Pearson, and
was named after him. It has also, according to Jerdon, been found
by Captain Hutton at Mussoorie; it is therefore reasonable to suppose
that it inhabits the whole range of the lower Himalayas. One striking
difference between it and the last species is the very short tail,
and it is easily to be recognised by the great length of the fur.


NO. 43. RHINOLOPHUS AFFINIS.
_The Allied Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 21_).

HABITAT.--Ceylon, Burmah, and perhaps the Malabar coast.

DESCRIPTION.--Above bright red ferruginous brown; tips of hair
darker, paler beneath; ears pointed and external; edge deeply
emarginated; internal edge and basal third of external surface
hairy; anti-helix well developed; nasal process apparently very
similar to that of _R. mitratus_ (_Kellaart_). Upper leaf triangular,
emarginate at the tip, reaching above the base of the ears
(_Jerdon_).

SIZE.--Head and body about 2-3/10 inches; tail, 1 inch; wing extent,
12 inches.

This bat seems to vary much in colour. Kellaart says some are of a
brighter red than others, and a few had a yellower tinge. Another
marked variety was of a uniform pale yellow brown.


NO. 44. RHINOLOPHUS ROUXI.
_The Rufous Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 22_).

HABITAT.--India generally.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears large, pointed, externally notched; tragus
broad; tips of upper nose-leaf triangular, with its sides well
emarginate, reaching above the base of the ears; no upper incisors
[as in _Megaderma lyra_]; lower molars only five; canines very large;
fur short, crisp; colour above smoky brown in some, reddish brown
in others, and golden rufous in some; beneath paler.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Length, 2-3/8 inches; tail, 1-1/8; wing expanse, 13 inches.

Hodgson considers this bat as allied to the two following species.
It is the _R. lepidus_ of Blyth.


NO. 45. RHINOLOPHUS MACROTIS.
_The Large-eared Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 23_).

HABITAT.--Lower Himalayas.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears very large, broad, oval, with pointed recurved
tip, and a large obtuse tragus; anterior central crest of nose-leaf
produced in front over the top of the flat transverse front edge;
hinder leaf lanceolate triangular; above sooty brown or light earthy
olive-brown, paler below, some with a rufous or Isabelline tint; no
pubic teats.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 inch; tail, 3/4; wing expanse, 9-3/4.


NO. 46. RHINOLOPHUS SUB-BADIUS.
_The Bay Leaf-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 24_).

HABITAT.--Nepaul.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears not larger than the head, obtusely pointed and
ovoid; nasal appendage quadrate, with a transverse bar nearly
surmounting it; upper leaf triangular, with slightly emarginate
sides; clear brown above, paler below and on head and face.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-1/2 inch; tail, 1-1/4; wing expanse,
7-1/2.--_Jerdon_.


NO. 47. RHINOLOPHUS RAMMANIKA (_Kellaart_).

HABITAT.--Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Above rufescent, beneath ashy brown; face slightly
fulvous; round the base of the ears and on the sides of the posterior
half of the body bright fulvous; tail enclosed in the interfemoral
membrane.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 1; wing expanse, 10 inches.

This is a doubtful species. Dr. Kellaart got one from Amanapoora hill
at Kaduganava. He says: "As the specimen reached us in a dried
condition, we are unable to say anything more about its nasal
processes than that in place of a transverse process above the
nostrils it had a small triangular peak over the usual horse-shoe
process surrounding the nasal opening. This triangular crest was
hairy; superiorly there was no appearance of a sac above it to the
best of our recollection."


NO. 48. RHINOLOPHUS ANDAMANENSIS.

HABITAT.--Southern Andaman Island.

DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--Like _R. affinis_ generally, but the
anterior horizontal horse-shoe shaped membrane is very broad,
completely concealing the muzzle when viewed from above, as in _R.
Pearsonii_; the posterior terminal leaf is also much longer,
produced backwards between the ears, and not concave on the sides
as in _R. affinis_. The thumb is also much longer. Fur bright reddish
brown above and beneath.


NO. 49. RHINOLOPHUS MINOR.

HABITAT.--Burmah, Yunan.

DESCRIPTION.--Light brown above, greyish brown beneath; ears
slightly shorter than the head, sub-acutely pointed; anti-tragus
large, separated by a deep angular notch; lower lip with three
vertical grooves.

SIZE.--Length of head and body from 1 to 1-3/4 inch.


NO. 50. RHINOLOPHUS COELOPHYLLUS.

HABITAT.--Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur brown, with whitish roots, light brownish white
below; ears large, with pointed tips projecting outwards;
"anti-tragus large, separated by an angular emargination from the
outer margin of the ear; horse-shoe large; horizontal margins of
central nose-leaf triangular, small; erect portion rather short,
with parallel sides and rounded summit, meeting the connected
vertical process at the same level" (_Dobson_). For a more detailed
description see Dobson's Monograph, page 53. Three vertical grooves
on lower lip.

SIZE.--Length of head and body about 2 inches.


NO. 51. RHINOLOPHUS GAROENSIS.

HABITAT.--Garo Hills, Assam; Himalayas (Mussoorie).

DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--Ears acutely pointed, with a large
anti-tragus, as in _R. affinis_; anterior vertical process of the
sella maintaining the same breadth upwards and rounded off above,
considerably exceeded in height by the upper edge of the connecting
process, which develops a long acutely pointed projection; terminal
portion of the posterior leaf broad with straight sides, forming an
almost equilateral triangle.

Wing membrane from the ankles, inter femoral membrane square behind;
extreme tip of the tail free.

SIZE.--Length of head and body about 1.5 inch.

This bat is figured (head only) in Dobson's Monograph, page 48.


NO. 52. RHINOLOPHUS PETERSII.

HABITAT.--India. Precise locality unknown.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears acutely pointed, with an emargination
immediately beneath the tip; anti-tragus large, separated from the
outer margin by a deep angular incision; nose-leaf horizontal,
horse-shoe-shaped, not so broad as the muzzle; vertical part of the
sella almost same breadth upwards, and rounded off above, exceeded
considerably in height by the upper margin of the posterior
connecting process; lower lip with three vertical grooves; fur dark
brown above, greyish brown beneath.

SIZE.--Length of head and body, 2.5 inches; tail, 1 inch.

There are two good woodcuts of the head of this bat in Dobson's
Monograph.


NO. 53. RHINOLOPHUS TRIFOLIATUS.

HABITAT.--East coast of India.

DESCRIPTION.--Very much like _R. perniger_ (_luctus_), but is
distinguished by its smaller size and by the more pointed vertical
process of the central nose-leaf, which in the other is truncated.

SIZE.--Length of head and body, 2 inches; tail about 1 inch.


_GENUS HIPPOSIDEROS_ (_GRAY_) VEL _PHYLLORHINA_ (_BONAPARTE_).

Nasal-leaf broad, depressed, transverse; ears with transverse
wrinkles; a circular sac behind the nasal crest, which can be turned
inside out; when alarmed the animal blows it out, and then withdraws
it at each breath; it contains a waxy matter of green or yellow colour.
Blyth thinks that this sac is affected by the amorous season, as in
the case of the infra-orbital cavities of various ruminants and
analogous glandular follicles in other animals.

This genus is also distinguishable from the last by the form of the
ear conch, the small size of the anti-tragus, and, as Dr. Dobson
particularly points out, by the presence of _two_ joints only in all
the toes, as also by the number and character of the teeth, which
are as follows:--

Inc., 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 54. HIPPOSIDEROS ARMIGER.
_The Large Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 25_).

HABITAT.--Lower Himalaya ranges; Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Nasal-leaf large and square; lips with a triple fold
of skin on each side; tragus vaguely developed and wavily emarginate;
of a uniform light-brown colour, with maroon tips to the hairs of
the upper parts; membranes black.

SIZE.--Head and body, 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/2; wing expanse, 22.

Jerdon makes this out to be the same as Kellaart's _H. lankadiva_
and the Malayan _H. nobilis_, but those are synonymous with
_Phyllorhina diadema_. Kellaart supposed it to be identical with _H.
insignis_, which will be found further on as _Phyllorhina larvata_,
all those bats closely resembling each other in a general way. I think
this No. 25 of Jerdon is the same as Peter's _Phyllorhina armigera_.
Hutton found it at Darjeeling, and writes of it as follows:--

"When captured alive the large ears are kept in a constant state of
rapid tremulous motion, and the animal emits a low purring sound,
which becomes a sharp scream when alarmed or irritated. When
suspended at rest the tail and inter-femoral membrane are turned up,
not in front, like the _Rhinolophi_, but behind, over the lower part
of the back; neither does it appear to envelope itself in its wings
so completely as does _R. luctus._" He then goes on to say he has
noticed the tremor of the ears and facial crests in all the
_Rhinolophi_ when disturbed, and concludes with a graphic
description of this species, sallying forth in the evening to prey
upon the noisy _Cicadas_; leisurely wheeling with noiseless,
cautious flight round some wide-spreading oak, "scanning each branch
as he slowly passes by--now rising to a higher circle, and then
perchance descending to the lower branches, until at length,
detecting the unfortunate minstrel, it darts suddenly into the tree,
and snatching the still screaming insect from its perch, bears it
away."

Jerdon procured specimens at Darjeeling, and Kellaart says it is
found in great abundance at Kandy and its neighbourhood; Kurnegalle
Tunnel swarms with them.


NO. 55. HIPPOSIDEROS SPEORIS.
_The Indian Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 26_).

HABITAT.--India generally and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Mouse brown or fulvous brown. Occasionally golden
fulvous and sometimes dusky black above, paler beneath; membranes
dusky brown; interfemoral membrane narrow, enclosing the tail except
the last half joint (about 2-10ths of an inch), which is free.

Ear large, erect and pointed, rounded at the base and emarginated
on the outer edge; nasal process complicated. "Males have a frontal
sac; females none" (_Kellaart_). Pubis naked, with two inguinal
warts.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1-2/10; wing expanse, 12.

Inhabits old buildings, wells, &c.


NO. 56. HIPPOSIDEROS MURINUS.
_The Little Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 27_).

HABITAT.--Southern India, Ceylon, and Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle short; body short and thick; a transverse
frontal leaf with a sac behind it; no folds of skin on each side of
the horse-shoe as in the last species; ears large, naked and rounded;
colour dusky brown or mouse, sometimes light fawn; wing membrane
blackish; interfemoral membrane large, and including the tail all
but the tip.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-4/5 inch; tail, 1-1/5 inch; wing expanse,
10.

Jerdon says the mouse-coloured variety is common in the Carnatic,
but he has only seen the light fulvous race on the Nilgheries; but
Mr. Elliot procured both in the southern Mahratta country. A dark
variety of this bat was called _Rhinolophus ater_ by Templeton, and
_H. atratus_ by Kellaart; in other respects it is identical, only
a little smaller.


NO. 57. HIPPOSIDEROS CINERACEUS.
_The Ashy Horse-shoe Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 28_).

HABITAT.--Punjab Salt range.

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but larger, and I should think
the argument against _H. atratus_ would apply to this as a distinct
species.


NO. 58. HIPPOSIDEROS LARVATUS.
_Syn_.--PHYLLORHINA LARVATA.

HABITAT.--Arracan.

DESCRIPTION.--The fur of the upper part bright fulvous; more or less
tinged with maroon on the back, lighter underneath; membranes dusky,
but tinged with the prevailing colour of the fur; ears angulated;
a minute false molar in front of the carnassial in the upper jaw.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-3/4 inches; tail, 1-1/4; wing extent, 12.

Kellaart writes of this bat under his _H. aureus_. He describes it
as head, neck, and body of a bright golden yellow, with a slight
maroon shade on the tips of the hairs on the back. Females paler
coloured. Frontal sac only in males; the waxy matter of a yellow
colour, and quite transparent.


NO. 59. HIPPOSIDEROS VULGARIS.
_Syn_.--PHYLLORHINA LARVATA.
_The Common Malayan Horse-shoe Bat_.

HABITAT.--Arracan and Malayana.

DESCRIPTION.--"It differs from the last in being rather smaller, and
of a brown colour above, much paler at the base of the hairs and at
their extreme tips, and lighter coloured below; the ears more
apiculated, or rather they appear so from being strongly emarginated
externally towards the tip."--_Blyth_.

SIZE.--2-3/10 inches; tail 1-2/10; wing expanse about 12.


NO. 60. HIPPOSIDEROS BLYTHII.

HABITAT.--Ceylon, Fort Frederic.

DESCRIPTION.--Above surface colour a rich dark tawny brown; base of
hairs much lighter coloured, of a brighter yellow tinge; beneath
paler; face partially blackish; ears black; tip of tail excerted;
no frontal sac; membranes blackish; nasal processes as in _H.
speoris_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-2/10 inches; tail, 1; wing expanse, 12.

Dr. Kellaart considered this a new and undescribed species,
distinguished from _H. speoris_ and _H. vulgaris_ (_vel
Templetonii_--Kellaart) by the greater length of the fore-arm, which
is two inches. This remark however does not apply to _vulgaris_, of
which Kellaart himself gives two inches as the length of the radius,
and Blyth gives two and a quarter. The absence of the frontal sac
would have been a greater proof, but both specimens on which Kellaart
made his observations were females; and as colouring is so varied
in the bat tribe as to preclude the division of species on this ground,
I think we may put this down as a doubtful species on which more
information is desirable.


NO. 61. PHYLLORHINA DIADEMA.

HABITAT.--India generally; Ceylon and Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--The fur with three shades--buff, then reddish brown
with ashy tips, underneath greyish or pale brown. "The hinder erect
nose-leaf," according to Dobson's description, "equals the
horse-shoe and slightly exceeds the sella in width, its free margin
forming a segment of the circumference of a circle, with a small blunt
projection in the centre and three vertical ridges on its concave
front surface; sella large, with a prominent ridge in the centre,
forming a small projection above and one smaller on each side; sides
of the muzzle with prominent vertical leaves, three on each side;
no frontal pore."

There is a good figure of the head of this bat in Cuvier's 'Animal
Kingdom,' Carpenter's and Westwood's edition, under the name of
_Rhinolophus nobilis_. It is the same also as Kellaart's
_Hipposideros lankadiva_. Captain Hutton, who was a keen observer
of the habits of the bats at Mussoorie, says of this one: "Like _R.
affinis_, this species may frequently be heard during its flight
cracking and crunching the hard wings of beetles, which in the
evening hours are usually abundant among the trees; the teeth are
strong, and the _tout ensemble_ of its aspect is not unlike that of
a bull-dog."--'Proc. Zoo. Soc.,' 1872, page 701.


NO. 62. PHYLLORHINA MASONI.

HABITAT.--Burmah (Moulmein).

DESCRIPTION.--This bat resembles the last closely; such difference
as exists is that the concave surface of the terminal nose-leaf is
divided into two cells only by a single central vertical ridge, and
from the under surface of the juncture of the mandible a small bony
process projects downwards about equal to the lower canine tooth in
vertical extent, and covered by the integument.

There is an excellent figure of this bat in Dobson's Monograph, from
whence I have also taken the above description.


NO. 63. PHYLLORHINA NICOBARENSIS.

HABITAT.--Nicobar Island.

DESCRIPTION.--"Ears large, acute; outer margin slightly concave
beneath the tip; no frontal sac behind the nose-leaf; upper margin
of the transverse terminal leaf simple, forming an arc of a circle,
folded back and overhanging the concave front surface, which is
divided into _two_ cells only by a single central longitudinal ridge;
in front the margin of the horse-shoe is marked by three small points"
(_Dobson_). Fur light brown, then greyish, with light brown tips.

SIZE.--Length of head and body, 3 inches.


NO. 64. PHYLLORHINA ARMIGERA.

HABITAT.--The entire range of the Himalayas, Khasya Hills, and
Ceylon.

[Figure: _Phyllorhina armigera_. Male. Female.]

DESCRIPTION.--The hinder erect nose-leaf narrow, not so broad as the
horse-shoe; upper edge sinuate, slightly elevated in the centre, and
at either extremity; vertical ridges beneath well developed,
prominent, enclosing moderately deep cells; wart-like granular
elevations on each side above the eyes are usually greatly developed,
forming large thickened longitudinal elevations extending forward
on each side of the posterior erect nose-leaf, and backwards towards
the frontal sac (_Dobson_). The colour varies.

SIZE.--Length of head and body from 3 to 4 inches; tail about 2.

This is the largest of this genus, and one of the most interesting
of the species. My space will not admit of extensive quotations from
those who have written about it, but there is a fuller description
of it in Dr. Dobson's book, and a very interesting account of its
habits by Capt. J. Hutton, in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological
Society,' 1872, page 701.


NO. 65. PHYLLORHINA LEPTOPHYLLA.

HABITAT.--Khasya Hills.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears large, broad, triangular, with subacute tips;
outer margin slightly concave; upper transverse nose-leaf small;
upper edge simple, narrower than horse-shoe, thin; three vertical
folds in front faintly descernible at base only; horse-shoe with
small incision in centre of front free edge; frontal pore small,
placed at some distance behind the transverse nose-leaf; fur and
integuments dark throughout.--_Dobson_.

SIZE.--Length of head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1-6/10.


NO. 66. PHYLLORHINA GALERITA.

HABITAT.--Central India, Deccan.

DESCRIPTION.--"Ear comparatively small, as broad as long; inner
margin very convex forward; outer margin slightly concave beneath
the tip; nose-leaf as in _P. larvata_, but the transverse terminal
leaf is more rectangular; the superior margin less convex, and its
concave front surface is marked by three very prominent vertical
ridges; frontal pore small, indistinct, not larger than in the
females of _P. larvata_."--_Dobson_.

SIZE.--Head and body about 2 inches; tail, 1 inch.


NO. 67. PHYLLORHINA BICOLOR.

HABITAT.--India (N. W. Himalaya), Nicobar Islands.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur above reddish chestnut; the base of the hairs pale
reddish-white, or base of hair pure white, the tip, dark
reddish-brown. Ears as long as the head, broad; the lower half of
the inner margin very convex; the summit of the ear conch rounded
off broadly as far as a point on the outer side, where a slight but
distinct flattening occurs, and indicates the position of the tip.
Horse-shoe small, square; the concave front surface divided into
four cells by three distinct vertical ridges; no secondary leaflets
external to the horse-shoe; frontal sac distinct in males,
rudimentary in females (_Dobson_). Blyth includes this bat in his
Burmese Catalogue, but does not say much about it.


GENUS COELOPS.

Possesses the general characteristics of _Rhinolophus_, but the tail
and calcanea wanting entirely; the intercrural membrane acutely
emarginate to the depth of a line even with the knees; ears large,
broad and rounded; the summit of the facial membranes rising abruptly,
obtusely bifid, bent forward; fur long, delicately fine.--_Jerdon_.

Dental formula: Inc., 1--1/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars,
2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 68. COELOPS FRITHII.
_Frith's Tailless Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 29_).

HABITAT.--The Sunderbunds, Bengal.

DESCRIPTION.--Colour dusky or blackish; the fur tipped with ashy
brown above, paler and somewhat ashy beneath; membranes fuscous.

SIZE.--Length, 1-7/8 inch; membrane beyond 3/4 inch; forearm, 1-3/4.

This bat is rare. The above description, given by Jerdon, is based
on one specimen sent to Mr. Blyth by Mr. Frith, who obtained it in
the Sunderbunds. It also inhabits Java. Dr. Dobson examined a
specimen from thence in the Leyden Museum. He says: "Calcanea and
tail very short," whereas the above description says entirely
wanting. "The ears are funnel-shaped, and thickly covered with fine
hair. Metacarpal bone of thumb very long; the wing membrane enclosing
the thumb up to the base of the claw; wing to the tarsus close to
the ankles; feet very slender; toes with strong claws."


_GENUS RHINOPOMA_.

Ears moderate, but joined above, as in the Megaderms; the nostrils
at the end of the muzzle, with a little lamina above, forming a kind
of snout; tail slender and joined at the base with the intercrural
membrane, but extending far beyond it.

Dental formula: Inc., 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 1--1/2--2;
molars 3--3/3--3.


NO. 69. RHINOPOMA HARDWICKII.
_Hardwick's Long-tailed Leaf Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 30_).

HABITAT.--All over India, Burmah and Malayana.

[Figure: Skull of _Rhinopoma_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle long, thick, truncated, and surrounded by a
small leaf; tragus oblong, bi-acuminate; forehead concave with a
channel down the centre; fur soft and very fine, dull brown
throughout; face, rump, and part of abdominal region naked.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-6/10 inches; tail, 2-1/2; expanse, 13.

Frequents old ruins, caves, and clefts in rocks.


SUB-FAMILY NOCTILIONIDAE.

Bats without facial membranes; with short obtuse and bull-doggish
heads; large lips.


_GENUS TAPHOZOUS_.

Have a small rounded indenture on the forehead; no raised lamina on
the nostrils; the head pyramidal; eyes rather large; ears moderate
in size and not joined at the base, but widely apart; the tip of the
tail free above the membrane, which is much longer.

The males have a transverse cavity under the throat; wings long and
narrow, collapsing with a double flexure outwards; fur soft and
velvety. (Dobson includes this genus in his Family _Emballonuridae_.)

Dental formula: Inc., 1--1/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars,
2--2/2--2; molars, 3--3/3--3; premaxillaries cartilaginous,
supporting only one pair of weak incisors with a gap between them.


NO. 70. TAPHOZOUS LONGIMANUS.
_The Long-armed Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 31_).

HABITAT.--India generally.

DESCRIPTION.--"Ears oval, with many distinct folds, naked except at
the base; tragus securiform; fur thick, close, fuscous-black; or
dark fuscous-brown above; beneath paler, except on the throat, the
hairs being conspicuously tipped with grey, the upper hairs being
all white at their base; face nude, and the membrane dark
brownish-black" (_Jerdon_). The gular sac, though represented in the
male, is almost absent in the female, being but a rudimentary fold
of skin; in this it differs from another common Indian species, _T.
saccolaimus_, in which the gular sac is well developed in both sexes,
though larger in the male.

SIZE.--Length, 5 inches; expanse, 15 to 16; tail, 1; fore-arm, 2-5/8;
tibia, 1 inch.

This bat frequents old buildings, dark cellars, old ruins, &c.; the
young are fulvescent, and become darker with age. Blyth states that
it has a surprising faculty for creeping about on the vertical board
of a cage, hitching its claws into the minute pores of the wood.


NO. 71. TAPHOZOUS MELANOPOGON.
_The Black-bearded Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 32_).

HABITAT.--Common about Calcutta, East Coast of India, Burmah, and
Cochin China.

DESCRIPTION.--"No gular sac, the openings of small pores appearing
along a line corresponding to the position of the mouth of the gular
sac in other species; in some male specimens the hair behind these
pores is very long, forming a dense black beard" (_Dobson_). Ears
moderate, oval, with the outer margin extending under the eyes,
dilated into a large rounded lobe; the tragus leaf-shaped; the head,
muzzle, and chin covered with short hairs.

SIZE.--Length of head and body about 3-1/2; tail, 2/3; wing expanse,
14 inches.

Horsfield says it occurs in caves in Java inhabited by the esculent
swallows (_Collocalia nidifica_), the gelatinous nests of which are
used for soup by the Chinese. Dobson remarks that the black beard
is not always developed in the males; he conceives it to be owing
to certain conditions, probably connected with the amorous seasons.
In five males in the Indian Museum the beard is well developed; he
found that only two per cent. of the Cochin China specimens in the
Paris Museum possessed it.


NO. 72. TAPHOZOUS SACCOLAIMUS.
_The White-bellied Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 33_).

HABITAT.--Peninsula of India, Burmah, and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--"Muzzle angular, naked, very acute; nostrils small,
close; ears distant, shorter than the head, large inner margin
recurved, outer margin dilated, reaching to the commissure of the
mouth; tragus wide, securiform (i.e. axe-shaped); fur short, smooth,
blackish on the head, chestnut brown on the back; beneath,
dirty-white or black brown above with white pencillings; pure white
below" (_Jerdon_). Dobson says of the fur: "above, white at the base,
the terminal three-fourths of the hairs black, with a few irregular
small white patches on the back; beneath dark brown." The gular sac
is to be found in both sexes, but somewhat larger in the males.

SIZE.--About 5 inches; wing expanse, 17.


NO. 73. TAPHOZOUS THEOBALDI.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim.

DESCRIPTION.--The gular sac is absent in both sexes; ears larger than
in any others of the sub-genus; the muzzle, from the corners of the
eyes downwards, naked.

SIZE.--Head and body about 3-1/10 inches; tail, 1-1/4.


NO. 74. TAPHOZOUS KACHHENSIS.

HABITAT.--Kachh, N. W. India.

DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--"Gular sac absent in both male and
female; its usual position indicated in the male by a semi-circular
fold of skin and nakedness of the integument in this situation; in
other respects similar to _T. nudiventris_. The deposits of fat about
the tail very large."

SIZE.--Head and body about 3 inches; tail, 1-1/4.

_T. nudiventris_, above alluded to, is an inhabitant of Asia Minor,
Egypt, and Nubia; similar to the above, only that it has a small gular
sac in the male, of which a trace only exists in the female. Its most
striking peculiarity is the deposit of fat at the root of the tail,
which may possibly be for purposes of absorption during the dormant
winter season.


_GENUS NYCTINOMUS_.

"Ears broad, short, approximate or connate with the outer margin,
terminating in an erect lobe beyond the conch; tragus small,
concealed" (often very small and quadrate, but never reduced to a
mere point, as in _Molossus_--Dobson); "wings narrow, folded as in
_Taphozous_; intercrural membrane short, truncate; tall free at the
tip; feet short, with strong toes; muzzle thick; lips tumid, lax;
upper lip with coarse wrinkles."--_Jerdon_.

Dental formula: Inc., 2/6 or 2/4; can., 1--1/1--1; premol.,
2--2/2--2; mol., 3--3/3--3.


NO. 75. NYCTINOMUS PLICATUS.
_The Wrinkle-lipped Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 34_).

HABITAT.--India generally.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle broad and thick; upper lip overhanging the
lower, marked by vertical wrinkles; ears large and quadrilateral;
outer margin ending in a decided anti-tragus; tail thick; the lower
part of the leg is free from the wing membrane, which however, is
connected with the ankle by a strong fibrous band; fur dense, smoky
or snuff brown above (or bluish black--_Dobson_); paler beneath.

SIZE.--Head and body about 2-1/10 inches; tail, 1-1/10. Jerdon gives
length, 4-1/4 to 4-1/10; expanse, 13-1/2; tail, 1-3/4.

This bat is common about Calcutta, frequenting ruins, dark places
and hollow trees. It is allied to _N. tenuis_ (_Horsfield_), and it
is mentioned as inhabiting hollow trees in such numbers as to attract
attention by the hissing noise from within, every available spot in
the interior being occupied. A synonym of the genus is _Dysopes_.


NO. 76. NYCTINOMUS TRAGATUS.

HABITAT.--India generally.

DESCRIPTION.--This differs from the last in having the wing membrane
from the ankles, and in the free portion of the tail being shorter;
ears united at the base; tragus broad and rounded above, partially
concealed by the large anti-tragus.

SIZE.--About the same as the last.


SUB-FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE.

These bats have simple nostrils, as in the frugivorous ones, with
no complications of foliated cutaneous appendages; the muzzle is
conical, moderately long, and clad with fur; the ears wide apart;
the inner margins springing from the sides, not the top of the head;
the tragi are large; eyes usually very small, and the tail, which
is long, is wholly included in the membrane.

Dentition (usually): Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1, premol.,
3--3/3--3; mol., 3--3/3--3. The upper incisors are small, and placed
in pairs near the canines, leaving a gap in the centre. The lower
ones sharp-edged and somewhat notched. At birth there are twenty-two
teeth, which are shed, and replaced by others, with sixteen
additional ones, the adult bat having thirty-eight teeth.


_GENUS PLECOTUS_.

Ears very large, united at the base; outer margin of the ear conch
terminating opposite the base of the tragus, the inner margin with
an abrupt rounded projection directed inwards above the base; tragus
very large, tapering upwards, with a lobe at the base of the outer
margin.

Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2;
molars, 3--3/3--3.

The English species _P. auritus_ is very common there, and also in
France; its ears are nearly as long as its body, yet, when reposing,
they are so folded as to be almost out of sight. The Indian species
is only a variety distinguishable by its yet longer ears ("and
comparative shortness of the thumbs"--_Dobson_).


NO. 77. PLECOTUS AURITUS _vel_ HOMOCHROUS.

HABITAT.--The Himalayas and the Khasia Hills.

[Figure: _Plecotus auritus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Head slightly raised above the face-line; ears nearly
as long as the fore-arm, joined by a low band across the forehead
at the bases of their inner margins; wings from the base of the toes;
feet slender; tip of the tail free; fur silky, short, and of a uniform
dull brown.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.7 inch; ears, 1.55 (ears of English type of
same size, 1.4 inch); tail, 1.7 inch. Jerdon gives larger results,
but I put more reliance on Dobson's figures.


_GENUS VESPERUGO_.

Bats with very broad and obtuse muzzles; the glandular prominences
much developed between the eyes and the nostrils; crown of the head
flat; but what distinguishes it from the following genus,
_Scotophilus_, is the presence of four incisors in the upper jaw,
whereas _Scotophilus_ has two only--otherwise the two genera are
very similar.


NO. 78. VESPERUGO NOCTULA.

HABITAT.--Nepal.

[Figure: _Vesperugo noctula_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Head broad and flat; ears oval and broad; the outer
margin convex, reflected backwards, and forming a thick lobe
terminating close to the angle of the mouth; tragus short and curved
inwards; muzzle devoid of hair; fur dark reddish brown.


NO. 79. VESPERUGO LEUCOTIS.

HABITAT.--Deserts of Northern India, and Beluchistan.

DESCRIPTION.--"Ears, sides of face, about the eyes, interfemoral
membrane, antehumeral membrane, and that portion of the wing
membrane along the sides of the body, white, very translucent;
remaining portion of wing membrane sepia, traversed by very distinct
reticulations; fur on the upper surface black at the base of the hairs
for about half their length, remaining portion light yellowish
brown; beneath the same, but paler, almost white."--_Dobson_.


NO. 80. VESPERUGO MAURUS.

HABITAT.--Khasya Hills.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle broad and flat, with large labial development;
ears broad, triangular, broadly rounded off above; tragus broad and
square; fur long and dense, uniformly sooty brown, with greyish tips;
membranes, nose, ears and lips black.

SIZE.--Head and body 1-1/10 inch; tail, 1 inch.


NO. 81. VESPERUGO AFFINIS.

HABITAT.--Burmah (Bhamo, Yunan).

DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Dobson).--Head flat; upper labial glands so
developed as to cause a deep depression between them on the face
behind the nostrils; ears broad as long from behind; the outer margin
extends from the tip to its termination near the corner of the mouth
without emargination or lobe; tragus broad; inner margin straight;
outer convex; small triangular lobe at base. Fur chocolate brown
above, lighter on head and neck; beneath dark brown with lighter tips
on the pubes, and along the thighs dirty white or pale buff.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.9 inch; tail, 1.65 inch.

There is a good figure of the head of this bat in Dobson's Monograph;
it was obtained by Dr. J. Anderson at an elevation of 4500 feet at
Bhamo.


NO. 82. VESPERUGO PACHYOTIS.

DESCRIPTION.--"This species is readily distinguished by the
peculiar thickness of the lower half of the outer side of the
ear-conch, which appears as it were excavated out of the thick
integument of the neck; tragus short, curved inwards."--_Dobson_.

This bat is more fully described with three illustrations in Dobson's
Monograph; he does not mention where it is found, so it may or it
may not be an Indian species.


NO. 83. VESPERUGO ATRATUS.
_Syn_.--NYCTICEJUS ATRATUS.

HABITAT.--Darjeeling.

DESCRIPTION.--Head broad; muzzle obtuse; upper labial glands
largely developed; ears large, oval, with rounded tips, which in the
natural position of the ears appear acute, owing to the longitudinal
folding of the outer side of the conch on the inner, commencing at
and almost bisecting the tip (_Dobson_). Fur long, dense and black;
Jerdon says rich dark brown; paler beneath.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.9 inch; tail, 1.8 inch.


NO. 84. VESPERUGO TICKELLI.

HABITAT.--Chybassa, Jashpur, and Sirguja.

DESCRIPTION.--Head broad and flat; labial glands developed; ears
moderate, rounded above; outer edge straight, emarginate opposite
base of tragus, terminating in a small lobe; tragus lunate; tail
long; last vertebra free. The face is more clad with fur than in other
species of this genus; fur of the body pale, straw brown above, pale
buff beneath. For a fuller description and illustration, see
Dobson's Monograph.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.65 inch; tail, 2 inches.


NO. 85. VESPERUGO PACHYPUS.

HABITAT.--Darjeeling, Tenasserim, and Andaman Islands.

DESCRIPTION.--Crown of head very flat; ears short, triangular, with
broadly rounded tips, tragus short; under surface of the base of the
thumb and soles of the feet with broad fleshy pads; wings rather
short; fur fine and dense, above reddish brown, paler beneath.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.75 inch; tail 1 inch.


NO. 86. VESPERUGO ANNECTANS.

HABITAT.--Naga Hills and Assam.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle sharper; face hairy; ears pointed; tragus
long; colour dark brown; illustration in Dobson's Monograph.

SIZE.--About 2 inches; tail, 1.6 inch.

Unites the appearance of a _Vespertilio_ to the dentition of
_Vesperugo_.


NO. 87. VESPERUGO DORMERI.

HABITAT.--Southern India and Bellary Hills.

DESCRIPTION.--Head flat; ears shorter, triangular, with rounded
tips; tragus with a small triangular lobe near base of outer margin;
fur brown, with ashy tips above, darker brown below, with the
terminal third of the hairs white. Dentition approaches the next
genus, there being only one pair of unicuspidate upper incisors
placed, one by each upper canine.


NO. 88. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS SEROTINUS.
_Syn_.--VESPERUGO SEROTINUS.
_The Silky Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 35_).

HABITAT.--Europe, but extending through Asia to the Himalayas,
Beluchistan and Kashmir.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears shorter than head, widely separate, ovate,
angular, projecting forward, terminating in a convex; lobe ending
on a level with the corner of the mouth; tragus twice the length of
its breadth, semi-cordate; fur deep bay or chestnut brown; above
fulvous, grey beneath; hairs of back long and silky, but the colour
of the fur varies considerably.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 2; wing expanse, 13.

This is a rare bat in India, though Captain Hutton has procured it
at Mussoorie. In England it is not uncommon even near London; it flies
steadily and rather slow, and is found in ruins, roofs of churches,
and sometimes old hollow trees.


NO. 89. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS LEISLERI.
_Syn_.--VESPERUGO LEISLERI.
_The Hairy-armed Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 36_).

HABITAT.--Himalayas.

[Figure: _Vesperugo Leisleri_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Ears short, oval, triangular; tragus short, rounded
at tip; membrane attached to base of outer toe; all toes short;
membrane over the arms very hairy, some cross-lines of hair on the
interfemoral membrane; fur long, deep fuscous brown at base,
chestnut at the tip; beneath greyish brown.--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/4 inches; tail, 3-3/4; expanse, 11-1/2.


SCOTOPHILUS PACHYOMUS.
(_Jerdon's No. 37._)

Synonymous with his No. 35; see Dobson's Monograph.


NO. 90. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS COROMANDELIANUS.
_Syn_.--VESPERUGO ABRAMUS; VESPERTILIO COROMANDELICUS.
_The Coromandel Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 38_).

HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears triangular, rather large; outer margin straight
or slightly concave; tragus lunate; feet small; wing membrane
attached to the base of the toes; fur short, above dingy brown, the
hairs tipped with a lighter tinge, paler beneath.

SIZE.--2-1/2 inches, including tail, which is about 1-1/8; wing
expanse, 7-1/2.

This is a very common little bat, akin to the English Pipistrelle,
and is found everywhere in roofs, hollow bamboos, &c.


NO. 91. (VESPERUGO) SCOTOPHILUS LOBATUS.
_Syn_.--VESPERUGO KUHLII.
_The Lobe-eared Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 39_).

HABITAT.--India generally.

DESCRIPTION.--Ears small, triangular; the base of the margin very
convex forward; a triangular lobule above the base of the outer
margin; tragus short and uniform in width; a short muzzle; wings from
the base of the toes; feet small; calcaneum long; tip of tail free;
fur blackish yellow above, ashy beneath.

SIZE.--Two and a-half inches, of which the tail is 1-1/4; expanse
7-2/3. Jerdon, quoting Tomes, states that this is the same as _V.
Abramus_, but that is the synonym of the last species.


_GENUS SCOTOPHILUS_.

Muzzle short, bluntly conical, devoid of hair; ears longer than
broad; tail shorter than the head and body; wing membrane attached
to the base of the toes.

Dentition: Inc., 1--1/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 1--1/2--2;
molars 3--3/3--3.

Jerdon's formula gives upper incisors 4.


NO. 92. SCOTOPHILUS FULIGINOSUS.
_The Smoky Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 40_).

HABITAT.--Central Nepal.

DESCRIPTION (_apud_ Hodgson).--"Feet very small, included in the
wing membrane nearly to the end of the toes; ears acutely pointed,
shorter than the head; muzzle groved, nudish; face sharp; rostrum
somewhat recurved; wholly sooty brown; a little smaller than _Vesp.
formosa_."

I cannot find this bat mentioned by any other author, and Jerdon
says it does not seem to be recognised.


NO. 93. SCOTOPHILUS TEMMINCKII.
_Syn_.--NYCTICEJUS TEMMINCKII (_Jerdon_).

HABITAT.--India generally; Burmah and Ceylon.

[Figure: _Scotophilus Temminckii_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Ears short, rounded and narrow; tragus narrow, curved
and pointed inwards; muzzle thick, blunt and conical; the fur varies,
sometimes dark olive brown, fulvous beneath, and occasionally
chestnut, with a paler shade of yellow below.

SIZE.--Four and a-half inches, of which the tail is 1-1/2; expanse,
13.

A very common species, appearing early in the evening. Horsfield says
of it that it collects by hundreds in hollow trees, and feeds chiefly
on white ants.


NO. 94. SCOTOPHILUS HEATHII.

HABITAT.--India and Ceylon (Rajanpore, Punjab).

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the above, but longer in all its
measurements (_Dobson_). Judging from drawings, the head and muzzle
of this are more in a line than in the last species, the ears project
forward, and are also larger, the tragus especially, and there is
a greater width between the ears.

SIZE.--Five inches, of which the tail is 2.


NO. 95. SCOTOPHILUS EMARGINATUS.

HABITAT.--India; precise locality unknown.

DESCRIPTION.--Head broad and flat; muzzle obtuse and thick; ears
long and large, with rounded tips turning outwards; tragus short;
thumb long with a strong claw; wing membrane quite devoid of hair,
except on the interfemoral membrane, which is half covered; fur
tricolored, first dark chestnut, buff, and then yellowish brown.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/10 inches; tail, 2 inches.


NO. 96. SCOTOPHILUS ORNATUS.
_Syn_.--NYCTICEJUS ORNATUS.

HABITAT.--India and Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--Head broad; muzzle short; ears triangular, erect,
with rounded tips, and broadly rounded lobe at the base; tragus
narrow, semi-lunate, curved towards the front; fur a light
Isabelline brown, spotted with white; a white spot on the centre of
the forehead, and from the back of the head down the spine for
two-thirds of its length a narrow white streak; on each side of the
body two white patches; a broad white collar, or rather demi-collar,
from one ear spot to the other, passing under the throat. Dr. Dobson
says the position of these patches is very constant, but the size
varies, being greatest in individuals of a pale rusty red colour,
and these he found always to be males.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2 inches; expanse, 15.


NO. 97. SCOTOPHILUS PALLIDUS.

HABITAT.--Mian Mir, Lahore.

DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _S. Temminckii_; ears slightly
shorter than the head; internal basal lobe convex, evenly rounded;
tip broadly rounded off; tragus moderately long and rounded at the
tip; a prominent triangular lobe at base. Wing membrane from base
of toes; lobule at the heel very narrow and long; last rudimentary
caudal vertebra free; fur of the body, wings, and interfemoral
membrane pale buff throughout.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1.4 inch.


NOCTULINIA NOCTULA.
(See _ante: Vesperugo noctula--Jerdon's No. 41_.)


NYCTICEJUS HEATHII.
_Large Yellow Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 42_).
(See _ante: Scotophilus Heathii_.)


NYCTICEJUS LUTEUS.
_The Bengal Yellow Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 43_).


NYCTICEJUS TEMMINCKII.
_The Common Yellow Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 44_).

Both the above (Nos. 43 and 44) are, according to Dr. Dobson,
synonymous with _Scotophilus Temminckii_, which see.


NYCTICEJUS CASTANEUS.
_The Chestnut Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 45_).

This is also a variety of _Scotophilus Temminckii_.


NYCTICEJUS ATRATUS.
_The Sombre Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 46_).
(See _ante: Vesperugo atratus_.)


NYCTICEJUS CANUS.
_The Hoary Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 47_).
(See _ante: Vesperugo lobatus_.)


NYCTICEJUS ORNATUS.
_The Harlequin Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 48_).
(See _ante: Scotophilus ornatus_.)


NO. 98. NYCTICEJUS NIVICOLUS.
_The Alpine Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 49_).

HABITAT.--Sikim.

DESCRIPTION.--"Head and body above uniform light brown with a slight
yellowish shade; underneath, from the throat to the vent, dark grey
with a brownish tint, lighter on the sides of the throat. Ears long,
attenuated to an obtuse point."--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2 inches; expanse, 19 inches.

This bat was described by Hodgson ('Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.' 1855), but
there is some doubt about it, and it has been classed as a _Lasiurus_
and also with _Scot. ornatus_ and _Vesp. formosa_, but Jerdon thinks
it a _distinct_ species. I cannot find any mention of it in Dobson's
monograph.


_GENUS HARPIOCEPHALUS_.

This is also the genus _Murina_ of Gray. Dr. Dobson explains his
acceptance of the former term in the following way: that he first
accepted _Murina_ on the score of priority in a paper showing that
_Harpiocephalus_ and _Murina_ must be united in a single genus; but
finding afterwards that Gray had founded _Murina_ on a specimen of
what he believed to be _Vesp. suillus_ (Temm.), but which was in
reality a specimen of a very different species from Darjeeling,
belonging to the same section of the genus as _Vespertilio harpia_
(Temm.) the type of his genus _Harpiocephalus_, it remained
therefore either to discard both names or to retain _Harpiocephalus_,
in which course he was supported by Professor Peters, to whom he
mentioned the facts.

Horsfield's genus _Lasiurus_ is included in this one, though Jerdon
considers it distinct from _Murina_.

Muzzle elongated, conical; _nostrils prominent, tubular; produced
beyond the upper lip_, opening laterally or sublaterally, emarginate
between; crown of the head scarcely raised above the face line; ears
thin, generally covered with glandular papillae; tragus long,
attenuated towards the tip, and inclined outwards; thumb very large,
with a large, strongly curved claw; wings around interfemoral
membrane very hairy.--_Dobson_.

Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can. 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2;
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 99. HARPIOCEPHALUS HARPIA.
_Lasiurus Pearsonii_ (_Horsfield_) (_Jerdon's No. 50_).

HABITAT.--Darjeeling and Khasia hills.

DESCRIPTION.--"Fur above very soft, silky, and rather long; colour
on the head, neck, and shoulders brownish grey, with a ferruginous
cast, variegated with whitish hairs; the rest of the body above, with
the base of the membrane, the thighs and the interfemoral membrane,
have a deep bay or reddish-brown hue, and delicate hairs of the same
colour are scattered over the membrane and project from its border;
the body underneath is thickly covered with a grey fur, which is paler
on the breast and body; the interfemoral membrane marked with
regularly parallel transverse lines" (_Horsfield_). Ears ovoid;
tragus rather long, nearly straight, acute at the tip (_Jerdon_).
Muzzle rather short, obtusely conical; end of nose projecting
considerably beyond the lip, consisting of diverging tubular
nostrils opening laterally, with a slight emargination between each
(_Dobson_).

SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; expanse, 14.
Hodgson, who procured it at Darjeeling, writes of it: "Entire legs
and caudal membrane clad in fur like the body, which is thick and
woolly. Colour bright rusty above; sooty below, the hairs tipped with
hoary."

[Figure: Skull of _Harpiocephalus harpia_.]

This bat is, for its size, one of the most powerfully armed with teeth.
The skull reminds one of that of a dog or hyaena in miniature; the
teeth are very stout, the canines blunt and conical, and the cusps
of the molars short and blunt, well coated with enamel; the jaws are
correspondingly muscular and adapted to the food of the animal, which
consists of hard-shelled beetles, the crushed cases of which have
been found in its stomach.


NO. 100. HARPIOCEPHALUS (MURINA) SUILLUS.
_The Pig-Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 51_).

HABITAT.--Darjeeling (_Jerdon_); Malayan archipelago.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle narrow, elongated; nostrils very prominent,
which, viewed from below, resemble in shape a small hour-glass placed
horizontally at the extremity of the muzzle; ears moderate, shorter
than the head, rounded at the tips; tragus moderately long,
attenuated above and slightly curved outwards; fur light
greyish-brown; extremities dark brown; beneath light greyish-brown
throughout.--_Dobson_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 to 2 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; expanse
9 to 10.


NO. 101. HARPIOCEPHALUS AURATUS.

HABITAT.--Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _H. suillus_, but the nostrils
are differently shaped; each nostril forms a distinct tube directed
sublaterally with a circular aperture marked by a very small notch
on the outer and upper margin (_Dobson_). The whole body is thickly
clad; the fur on the back is black, with bright golden yellow tips;
the back of the fore-arm covered with short golden hair; the hair
of the under parts black with silvery tips, whiter on the lower jaw,
neck and pubis; the interfemoral membrane is covered with very long
hair, which forms a fringe along its free margin extending on the
legs and feet, and projecting beyond the toes; underneath short
silvery hair.

SIZE.--Head and body 1.4 inch; tail 1.2.


NO. 102. HARPIOCEPHALUS GRISEUS.

HABITAT.--Jeripani, N.W. Himalayas.

DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _H. suillus_; fur above dark
brown, with yellowish-brown extremities; beneath similar, but with
the extreme points of the hairs ashy.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.4 inch; tail 1 inch.

This bat was found near Mussoorie by Captain Hutton, who writes that
it occurs, but sparingly, on the outer southern range of hills at
5500 feet. It skims close to the ground, and somewhat leisurely over
the surface of the crops and grass; and one which flew into his room
kept low down, passing under chairs and tables, instead of soaring
towards the ceiling, as bats generally do.


NO. 103. HARPIOCEPHALUS LEUCOGASTER.

HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas, Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Head and muzzle as in _H. harpia_; fur long and dense,
above brown with grey bases; underneath whitish; sides light brown.
It differs from the next species by a small projecting tooth on the
inner margin of the ear conch, by the smaller size of the first upper
premolar, and by the colour.--_Dobson_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.9 inch; tail 1.5.


NO. 104. HARPIOCEPHALUS CYCLOTIS.

HABITAT.--Darjeeling, Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but with round ears; fur
bicoloured, the hairs being dark brown at the base, with bright
ferruginous tips; below pale brown; the upper surface of the
interfemoral membrane and back of the feet covered with hair, which
also extends beyond the toes; the first premolar in the upper jaw
nearly equal in size to the second, whereas in the last species it
is only about three-fourths.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.7 inch; tail, 1.5.


_GENUS KERIVOULA_.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle long and narrow; skull very concave between the
nasal bones and the vertex, so that the crown appears considerably
vaulted; ears funnel-shaped and semi-transparent; tragus very long,
narrow and pointed; wings very wide; tail longer than head and body,
wholly contained within the interfemoral membrane.

Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 3--3/3--3;
molars, 3--3/3--3.

The generic name of this bat is composed of two Singhalese
words--_kehel_ or _kela_, the plantain, and _voulha_, which is the
Singhalese for bat, the specimen on which Gray founded his genus
being the following:--


NO. 105. KERIVOULA PICTA.
_The Painted Bat_ (_Jerdon's No. 53_).

HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--"Fur fine, woolly; above yellowish-red or golden
rufous, beneath less brilliant and more yellow; wing membranes inky
black, with rich orange stripes along the fingers extending in
indentations into the membrane."--_Jerdon_.

Ears moderate, laid forwards; the tips reach midway between the eyes
and the middle of the muzzle; tragus very long and straight; thumb
short; wings to the base of the toes.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-1/2 inch; tail, 1.6 inch; expanse about 10
inches.

This beautiful little bat is found all over India, but is not common;
it is occasionally caught in plantain gardens, as it resorts to the
leaves of that tree for shelter during the night, and may sometimes
be discovered in the folds of a leaf. As Jerdon remarks, it looks
more like a butterfly or a moth when disturbed during the day time.
Dr. Dobson pertinently observes that the colours of this bat appear
to be the result of the "protective mimicry" which we see so often
in insects, the Mantidea and other genera, the colours being adapted
to their abiding places. He alludes to Mr. Swinhoe's account ('P.
Z. S.,' 1862, p. 357) of an allied species:--"The body of this bat
was of an orange yellow, but the wings were painted with orange yellow
and black. It was caught suspended head downwards on a cluster of
the round fruit of the longan tree. (_Nephelium_ [_Scytalia_]
_longanum_) [the _ash phul_ of Bengal]. Now this tree is an evergreen,
and all the year through some portion of its foliage is undergoing
decay, the particular leaves being in such a stage partially orange
and black; this bat can therefore at all seasons suspend from its
branches and elude its enemies by its resemblance to the leaf of the
tree." This bat was named by Pallas _Vespertilio pictus_. Boddaert
in 1785 termed it _Vesp. kerivoula_, and Gray afterwards took the
second specific name for that of the genus, leaving the first as it is.


KERIVOULA PALLIDA.
(_Jerdon's No. 54._)

This is synonymous with _Vespertilio formosus_, which see further
on, it is the same as the _Kerivoula formosa_ of Gray.


NO. 106. KERIVOULA PAPILLOSA.
(_Jerdon's No. 55._)

HABITAT.--Java, but said by Jerdon to have been found in Calcutta
and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur fine woolly, long, bicoloured; above light
shining brown, paler below; the free edge of the interfemoral
membrane margined with small papillae.


NO. 107. KERIVOULA HARDWICKII.

HABITAT.--India (Assam--Shillong, Khasia hills).

DESCRIPTION.--Same size as _K. picta_, but ears larger; fur
uniformly dark above and below, with shining greyish-brown
extremities.


_GENUS VESPERTILIO_.

Muzzle long; ears often larger than the head, oval, apart; tragus
long, acute; crown of head vaulted; feet moderate; wing membrane from
base of toes; tail, wholly included in interfemoral membrane, less
than length of head and body.

Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 3--3/3--3;
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 108. MYOTIS (VESPERTILIO) MURINUS.
(_Jerdon's No. 61._)

HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas.

[Figure: _Vespertilio murinus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Fur above light reddish or smoke brown beneath dusky
white, the base of the hairs dark.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail, 2 inches; expanse, 15
inches.


NOS. 109 & 110. MYOTIS THEOBALDI and MYOTIS PARVIPES.
(_Jerdon's Nos. 62 & 63._)

Both these appear to be closely allied to the _pipistrelle_ of Europe,
and are stated to have been found at Mussoorie and in Kashmir.


NO. 111. VESPERTILIO LONGIPES.

HABITAT.--Kashmir (caves of Bhima Devi, 6000 feet).

DESCRIPTION.--Wings from the ankles; _feet very large_, about
one-fourth the length of the head and body; fur black above,
underneath black with whitish tips.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.75 inch; tail, 1.45 inch.


NO. 112. VESPERTILIO MYSTACINUS.

HABITAT.--Himalayas.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle narrow; skull vaulted; ears as long as head,
wings from base of toes; fur dark brown.


NO. 113. VESPERTILIO MURICOLA.

HABITAT.--Himalayas, Arracan.

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the above, but may be distinguished by a
small lobe behind the heel, by the deep emargination of the upper
third of the outer margin of the ear; by the intensely black colour
of the fur and membranes, and by its small size.--_Dobson_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.6 inch; tail, 1.55 inch.


NO. 114. VESPERTILIO MONTIVAGUS.

HABITAT.--Burmah, Hotha, Yunan.

DESCRIPTION.--Head slightly elevated above the face line; muzzle
obtuse; ears narrow, tapering, _with_ rounded tips slightly turned
outwards; tragus long, narrow, and acutely pointed; feet very small;
toes two-thirds the length of the whole foot; tail wholly contained
in the membrane; wings from base of toes; fur dark brown above, the
tips paler and shining, beneath much darker, almost black, with ashy
tips to the hairs; face much covered with hair, which almost conceals
the eyes; the tip of the nose alone naked; wing membranes partially
covered with fur.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.8 inch; tail, 1.6 inch.

This bat, of which the above description is taken from Dobson's
monograph, was obtained by Dr. J. Anderson during the Yunan
Expedition.


NO. 115. VESPERTILIO MURINOIDES.

HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas (Chamba), 3000 feet.

DESCRIPTION.--General form of the ear triangular, with narrow
rounded tips; outer margin concave beneath tips; tragus slender and
acutely pointed, with a quadrangular lobe at the base of the outer
margin; fur dark brown above with light brown tips; dark brown below,
almost black with greyish tips.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2.5 inches; tail 2.


NO. 116. VESPERTILIO FORMOSUS.

HABITAT.--N.W. Himalayas (Nepal, Darjeeling), Khasia hills.

[Figure: _Vespertilio formosus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Wing membrane broad and variegated with orange and
rich dark brown; the portions of the dark-coloured membrane are
triangular in form, and occupy the spaces between the second and
third and third and fourth fingers; all the remaining portions of
the membranes, including interfemoral, are orange, as are also the
ears; the orange colour extends in narrow lines along each side of
the fingers, and is dispersed over the dark triangular space in dots
and streaks.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1.1; expanse 11.


NO. 117. VESPERTILIO NEPALENSIS.

HABITAT.--Khatmandu, Nepal.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur of head and back long and dense, bicoloured; base
black, tips brown; underneath the hairs are two-thirds black, with
the remaining upper third pure white.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1.65 inch; tail, 1.35.


NO. 118. VESPERTILIO EMARGINATUS.
VARIETY.--_Desertorum_.

HABITAT.--Beluchistan.

DESCRIPTION.--The upper third of the outer margin of the ears deeply
emarginate; colour of fur light brownish; ears and interfemoral
membranes pale yellowish white; membranes dusky white.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail 1.6.


_GENUS MINIOPTERUS_ (_Bonaparte_).

DESCRIPTION.--Crown of head abruptly and very considerably raised
above the face line; ears separate, rhomboidal, the outer margin
carried forward to the angle of the mouth; tragus like that in
_Vesperugo_; first phalanx of the second or longest finger very
short; feet long and slender; tail as long as head and body, wholly
contained in the membrane.

Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1, premolars, 2--2/3--3,
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 119. MINIOPTERUS SCHREIBERSII.

HABITAT.--Burmah and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Colour of fur varies, the basal half of the hair always
dark greyish black, dark brown or black; the extremities varying from
light grey to light reddish-grey, dark reddish-brown and black. For
further details see Dobson's monograph.


_GENUS BARBASTELLUS_.

Ears large, connate at the base in front, triangular, emarginate on
the outer margin, broad, concealing the back of the head, hairy in
the middle; tragus broad at the base, narrow at the tip, and curved
outwardly.

[Figure: _Synotus barbastellus_.]

Dentition: Inc., 2--2/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 2--2/2--2;
molars, 3--3/3--3.


NO. 120. BARBASTELLUS COMMUNIS.
(_Jerdon's No. 65._)

HABITAT.--Himalayas, Nepal and Mussoorie.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur above blackish brown; the hairs fulvous at the
tips; abdomen greyish brown; hairs fine silky.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2 inches; tail, 1-2/12; expanse;
10-1/2.--_Jerdon_.

This is the same as the English Barbastelle, and it appears in
Dobson's monograph as _Synotus Darjeelinensis_.


NO. 121. NYCTOPHILUS GEOFFROYI.
(_Jerdon's No. 66._)

HABITAT.--Mussoorie.

Jerdon here goes back to the nose-leafed bats. I can find no trace
of it in Dobson's monograph, which is so exhaustive as far as Asiatic
species are concerned.

DESCRIPTION.--Over the eyes, at the hind corner, a tuft of black
hair; fur dark brown, above throat and flank brownish-white; below
black with white tips. A simple transverse nose-leaf; ears large,
ovoid, united at base as in _Plecotus_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 to 2 inches; tail, 1-5/12; expanse,
9-3/4.

* * * * *

We have now concluded our notice of Indian bats but yet much is to
be discovered concerning them. Very little is known of the habits
of these small nocturnal animals, only a few of the most familiar
large ones are such as one can discourse upon in a popular way; the
lives and habits of the rest are a blank to us. We see them flit about
rapidly in the dusky evening, and capture one here and there, but,
after a bare description, in most cases very uninteresting to all
save those who are "bat fanciers," what can be said about them? Many
of them have been written about for a century, yet how little
knowledge has been gained! It has been no small labour to collate
all the foregoing species, and to compare them with various works;
it would have been a most difficult task but for the assistance I
have received from Dr. Dobson's book, which every naturalist should
possess if he desires to have a thorough record of all the Indian
Chiroptera.


INSECTIVORA.

These are mostly small animals of, with few exceptions, nocturnal
habits.

Their chief characteristic lies in their pointed dentition, which
enable them to pierce and crush the hard-shelled insects on which
they feed. The skull is elongated, the bones of the face and jaw
especially, and those of the latter are comparatively weak. Before
we come to the teeth we may notice some other peculiarities of this
order.

The limbs are short, feet five-toed and plantigrade, with the entire
sole placed on the ground in running, and these animals are all
possessed of clavicles which in the next order are but rudimentary;
in this respect they legitimately follow the Bats. The mammae are
placed under the abdomen, and are more than two. None of them (except
_Tupaia_) have a caecum (this genus has been most exhaustively
described in all its osteological details by Dr. J. Anderson: see
his 'Anatomical and Zoological Researches'); the snout is usually
prolonged and mobile. The dentition is eccentric, and not always easy
to determine; some have long incisors in front, followed by other
incisors along the sides of their narrow jaws and canines, all
shorter than the molars; others have large separated canines,
between which are placed small incisors. In Blyth's additions to
Cuvier he states that "in this group we are led to identify the canine
tooth as simply the first of the false molars, which in some has two
fangs, and, as in the Lemurs, to perceive that the second in the lower
jaw is in some more analogous in size and character to an ordinary
canine than that which follows the incisors. The incisor teeth are
never more than six in number, which is the maximum throughout
_placental_ mammalia (as opposed by _marsupial_), and in several
instances one or two pairs are deficient. (It should be remarked that
a single tooth with two fangs is often represented by two separate
teeth, each with one fang.) The canines, with the succeeding false
molars, are extremely variable, but there are ordinarily three
tuberculated molars posterior to the representative of the
carnivorous or cutting grinder of the true _Carnivora_." All the
molar teeth are studded with sharp points or cusps; the deciduous
teeth are developed and disappear before birth. This order is divided
into four families, viz., _Talpidae_ or Moles, _Sorecidae_ or Shrews,
_Erinaceidae_ or Hedgehogs, and the _Tupaiadae_, Banxrings or
Tree-shrews. Of all these well-defined types are to be found in India,
but America and Africa possess various genera which we have not, such
as the Condylures (_Condylura_, Illiger), the Shrew-moles
(_Scalops_, Cuvier), belonging to _Talpidae_; the Solendons,
Desmans, and Chrysochlores to _Sorecidae_; the Sokinahs, Tenrecs and
Gymnures to _Erinaceidae_; and the Macroscelles or Elephant-mice of
the Cape Colony form another group more allied to _Tupaia_ than the
rest. This last family is the most interesting. Anatomically
belonging to this order, they externally resemble the squirrels so
closely as to have been frequently mistaken for them. The grovelling
Mole and creeping Shrew are as unlike the sprightly Tupaia, as it
springs from branch to branch, whisking its long bushy tail, as it
is possible to conceive. I intend further on to give an illustration
of this little animal. The first we have on record concerning it is
in the papers relating to Captain Cook's third voyage, which are now
in the British Museum, where the animal is described and figured as
_Sciurus dissimilis_; it was obtained at Pulo Condore, an island 100
miles from Saigon, in 1780.

Sir T. Stamford Raffles was the next to describe it, which he did
under the generic name _Tupaia_--_tupai_ being a Malayan word
applied to various squirrel-like small animals--but he was somewhat
forestalled in the publication of his papers by MM. Diard and
Duvaucel. Dr. Anderson relates how Sir T. Raffles engaged the
services of these two naturalists to assist him in his researches,
on the understanding that the whole of the observations and
collections were to be the property of the East India Company; but
ultimately on this point there arose a disagreement between them,
and the paper that was first read before the Asiatic Society of Bengal
on the 10th of March, 1820, was drawn up by MM. Diard and Duvaucel,
though forwarded by Sir T. Raffles, whose own paper on the subject
was not read before the Linnean Society until the 5th of December
of that year, nor published till 1821; therefore to the others
belongs the credit of first bringing this curious group to notice.

They regarded it in the light of a true Shrew, disguised in the form
and habits of a squirrel, and they proposed for it the name
_Sorex-Glis_, i.e. Shrew-squirrel (_Glis_ properly means a dormouse,
but Linnaeus used it for his rodential group which he termed
_Glires_); this was afterwards changed by Desmarest and Giebel to
_Gli Sorex_ and _Glisosorex_, which latter stands for one of the
generic terms applied to the group. F. Cuvier, objecting to _Tupaia_,
proposed _Cladobates_ (signifying branch walkers), and Temminck,
also objecting to _Tupaia_, suggested _Hylogale_ (from Gr. _hyla_,
forest, and _gale_, a weasel), so now we have four generic names for
this one small group. English naturalists have however accepted
_Tupaia_; and, as Dr. Anderson fairly remarks, though it is a pity
that some definite rules are not laid down for the guidance of
naturalists for the acceptance or rejection of terms, still those
who reject _Tupaia_ on the ground of its being taken from a savage
tongue should be consistent, and refuse all others of similar origin.
He is quite right; but how many we should have to reject if we did
so--_Siamanga_ in Quadrumana, _Kerivoula_ in Cheiroptera, _Tupaia_
in Insectivora, _Golunda_ in Rodentia, _Rusa_ in Ruminantia, and
others! At the same time these names are wrong; they convey no
meaning; and had they a meaning (which only _Kerivoula_ or
_Kelivoulha_, i.e. plantain-bat, has) it is not expressed in
languages common to all western nations, such as the Latin and Greek.
_Tupaia_ is an unfortunate selection, inasmuch as it does not apply
to one type of animal, but reminds me somewhat of the Madras _puchi_,
which refers, in a general way, to most creeping insects, known or
unknown.


FAMILY TALPIDAE--THE MOLES.

These animals have a small cylindrical body, very short arm attached
to a large shoulder-blade, supported by a stout clavicle or
collar-bone. The fore-feet are of great breadth, supported by the
powerful muscles of the arm; the palm of the foot or hand is directed
outwards or backwards, the lower edge being trenchant, with scarcely
perceptible fingers armed with long, flat nails, strong and sharp,
with which to tear up the ground and shovel the earth aside. The hind
feet are small and weak in comparison, with slender claws. The head
tapers to a point, the long snout being provided with a little bone
which assists it in rooting, and the cervical muscles are very strong.
The eyes are microscopical, and almost concealed in the fur. At one
time it was a popular delusion that the mole was devoid of the power
of sight, but this is not the case. The sense of hearing is extremely
acute, and the tympanum is large, although externally there is no
aural development. The tail is short, the fur set vertically in the
skin, whence it is soft and velvety. The bones of the pubis do not
join, and the young when produced are large. The mammae are six in
number. The jaws are weak, the incisors are six above and eight below.
The canines (false molars?) have two roots. There are four false
molars above and three below, and three molars with pointed cusps.

Moles live principally on earth-worms, snails, and small insects,
though they are also said to devour frogs and small birds. They are
more common in Europe than in India, where the few known species are
only to be found in hilly parts. I have, I think, procured them on
the Satpura range some years ago, but I cannot speak positively to
the fact at this lapse of time, as I had not then devoted much
attention to the smaller mammalia, and it is possible that my
supposed moles were a species of shrew.

They are seldom if ever trapped in India, for the simple reason that
they are not considered worth trapping, and the destruction of moles
in England has long been carried on in the same spirit of ignorance
which led farmers, both there and in France, to destroy small birds
wholesale, till they did themselves much injury by the
multiplication of noxious insects. Moles, instead of being the
farmers' foes, are the farmers' friends. Mr. Buckland in his notes
to Gilbert White's 'Natural History of Selborne'(Macmillan's
_edition de luxe_ of 1876)--says: "After dinner we went round the
sweetstuff and toy booths in the streets, and the vicar, my
brother-in-law, the Rev. H. Gordon, of Harting, Petersfield, Hants,
introduced me to a merchant of gingerbread nuts who was a great
authority on moles. He tends cows for a contractor who keeps a great
many of the animals to make concentrated milk for the navy. The moles
are of great service; eat up the worms that eat the grass, and
wherever the moles have been afterwards the grass grows there very
luxuriantly. When the moles have eaten all the grubs and the worms
in a certain space, they migrate to another, and repeat their
gratuitous work. The grass where moles have been is always the best
for cows." In another place he says: "M. Carl Vogt relates an instance
of a landed proprietor in France who destroyed every mole upon his
property. The next season his fields were ravaged with wire-worms,
and his crops totally destroyed. He then purchased moles of
his neighbours, and preserved them as his best friends."

The poor little despised mole has had its part to play in history.
My readers may remember that William the Third's horse is supposed
to have put his foot into a mole-pit, and that the king's death was
hastened by the unconscious agency of "the little gentleman in
black," who was so often toasted afterwards by the Jacobites.


_GENUS TALPA_


NO. 122. TALPA MICRURA.
_The Short-tailed Mole_ (_Jerdon's No. 67_).

HABITAT.--The Eastern Himalayan range.

NATIVE NAMES.--_Pariam_, Lepcha; _Biyu-kantyen_, Bhotia
(_Jerdon_).

DESCRIPTION.--Velvety black, with a greyish sheen in certain lights;
snout nude; eyes apparently wanting. Jerdon says there is no
perforation of the integument over the eyes, but this I doubt, and
think that by examination with a lens an opening would be discovered,
as in the case of the Apennine mole, which M. Savi considered to be
quite blind. I hope to have an opportunity of testing this shortly.
The feet are fleshy white, also the tail, which, as its specific name
implies, is very small. "There are three small upper premolars
between the quasi-canine tooth and the large scissor-toothed
premolar, which is much developed."

SIZE.--Length, 4-3/4 to 5 inches; head alone, 1-3/4; palm with claws,
7/8 inch; tail, 3/16 of an inch or less.

Jerdon says: "This mole is not uncommon at Darjeeling, and many of
the roads and pathways in the station are intersected by its runs,
which often proceed from the base of some mighty oak-tree to that
of another. If these runs are broken down or holes made in them they
are generally repaired during the night. The moles do not appear to
form mole-hills as in Europe." Jerdon's specimens were dead ones
picked up, as the Lepchas do not know how to trap them.


NO. 123. TALPA MACRURA.
_The Long-tailed Mole_ (_Jerdon's No. 68_).

HABITAT.--Sikim.

DESCRIPTION.--Deep slaty blue, with a whitish or hoary gloss,
iridescent when wet; the tail covered with soft hair.

SIZE.--Head and body, 4 inches; tail, 1-1/4 inch; head alone, 1-1/8
inch; palm, 3/4 inch.


NO. 124. TALPA LEUCURA (_Blyth_).
_The White-tailed Mole_.

HABITAT.--Sylhet, Burmah (Tenasserim).

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to _micrura_, but with a short tail covered
with white hairs, and it has one premolar less.


FAMILY SORECIDAE.

Small animals, which from their size, shape, and nocturnal habits
are frequently confounded with rats and mice, as in the case of the
common Indian Shrew, known to most of us as the Musk-rat; they have
distinct though small eyes, distinct ears, the conch of which is like
that of a mouse. The tail _thick_ and tapering, whence the generic
name _Pachyura_, applied by De Selys Longchamp, and followed
latterly by Blyth; but there is also a sub-family of bats to which
the term has been applied. "On each flank there is a band of stiff
closely-set bristles, from between which, during the rutting season,
exudes an odorous fluid, the product of a peculiar gland" (_Cuvier_);
the two middle superior incisors are hooked and dentated at the base,
the lower ones slanted and elongated; five small teeth follow the
larger incisors on the upper jaw, and two those on the lower. There
are three molars with sharp-pointed cusps in each jaw, with a small
tuberculous tooth in the upper. The feet are five-toed, separate,
not webbed like the moles; the snout is long and pointed and very
mobile.

This family has been subdivided in various genera by naturalists,
each one having his followers; and it is puzzling to know which to
adopt. Simplicity being the great point to aim at in all these matters,
I may broadly state that Shrews are divided into land and water shrews
(_Sorex_ and _Hydrosorex_); the former includes _Crocidura_ of
Wagner, _Corsira_ of Gray, and _Anurosorex_ of Milne-Edwards, the
latter _Crossopus_ and _Chimarrogale_, Gray.

For ages both in the West and East this poor little animal has been
the victim of ignorance. In England, even in the last century, it
was looked upon as an evil thing, as Gilbert White says: "It is
supposed that a shrew-mouse is of so baneful and deleterious a nature
that wherever it creeps over a beast, be it horse, cow, or sheep,
the suffering animal is afflicted with cruel anguish, and threatened
with loss of the use of the limb," the only remedy in such cases being
the application of the twigs of a shrew ash, which was an ash-tree
into which a large hole had been bored with an augur, into which a
poor little shrew was thrust alive and plugged up (_see_ Brand's
'Popular Antiquities' for a description of the ceremonies). It is
pleasant to think that such barbarities have now ceased, for though
shrew ashes are to be found in various parts of England, I have never
heard (in my own county, Derbyshire, at least) of the necessity for
their use. In an article I contributed to a magazine some thirteen
years ago, I pointed out a coincident superstition prevailing in
India. Whilst marching as a Settlement officer in the district of
Seonee, I noticed that one of my camels had a sore back and on
inquiring into the cause was told by the natives that a musk-rat (our
commonest shrew) had run over him. Jerdon also remarks that in
Southern India (Malabar) the bite of _S. murinus_ is considered
venomous, and so it is in Bengal.


_GENUS SOREX_ (_Linn_.).

SYNONYM.--_Pachyura_, De S. Long; _Crocidura_, Wagner.

[Figure: Dentition of Shrew (magnified).]

DESCRIPTION.--Upper front teeth large; "inferior incisors entire,
or rarely so much as the trace of a serrated upper edge;" between
these and the first cutting molar four teeth as follows: large, small,
middling, very small; teeth wholly white; tail thick and tapering,
with a few scattered hairs, some with glands secreting a pungent
musky odour, some without.


NO. 125. SOREX CAERULESCENS.
_The Common Musk Shrew, better known as Musk-rat_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Chachhunder_, Hind.; _Sondeli_, Canarese.

HABITAT.--India generally.

DESCRIPTION.--Bluish gray, sometimes slightly mouse-coloured;
naked parts flesh-coloured.

SIZE.--Head and body, 6 to 7 inches; tail 3-1/2 to 4 inches.

This little animal is almost too well known, as far as its appearance
is concerned, to need much description, though most erroneous ideas
prevail about its habits. It is proverbially difficult to uproot an
old-established prejudice; and, though amongst my friends I have
been fighting its battles for the poor little shrew for years, I doubt
whether I have converted many to my opinions. Certainly its
appearance and its smell go strongly against it--the latter
especially--but even here its powers are greatly exaggerated. I
think by this time the old fallacy of musk-rats tainting beer and
wine in bottles by simply running over them is exploded. When I came
out in 1856 it was a common thing at the mess table, or in one's own
house, to reject a bottle of beer or wine, because it was
"musk-ratty;" but how seldom is the complaint made now since
country-bottled beverages are not used? Jerdon, Kellaart, and every
Indian naturalist scouts the idea of this peculiar power to do what
no chemist has yet succeeded in, viz., the creation of an essence
subtle enough to pass through glass. That musky bottles were frequent
formerly is due to impregnated corks and insufficient washing before
the bottle was filled. The musk-rat in a quiescent state is not
offensive, and its odour is more powerful at certain seasons. I am
peculiarly sensitive to smells, and dislike that of musk in
particular, yet I have no objection to a musk-rat running about my
room quietly if I do not startle him. I never allow one to be killed,
and encourage their presence in the house, for I think the temporary
inconvenience of a whiff of musk is amply repaid by the destruction
of the numerous objectionable insects which lurk in the corners of
Indian houses. The notion that they do damage by gnawing is an
erroneous one, the mischief done by mice and rats being frequently
laid to their charge; they have not the powerful dentition necessary
for nibbling through wood and mortar. In my book on 'Camp Life in
Seonee,' I say a good word for my little friends, and relate as
follows an experiment which I tried many years ago: "We had once been
talking at mess about musk-rats; some one declared a bottle of sherry
had been tainted, and nobody defended the poor little beast but
myself, and I was considerably laughed at. However, one night soon
after, as I was dressing before dinner, I heard a musk-rat squeak
in my room. Here was a chance. Shutting the door, I laid a clean
pocket-handkerchief on the ground next to the wall, knowing the way
in which the animal usually skirts round a room; on he came and ran
over the handkerchief, and then, seeing me, he turned and went back
again. I then headed him once more and quietly turned him; and thus
went on till I had made him run over the handkerchief five times.
I then took it up, and there was not the least smell. I then went
across to the mess house, and, producing the handkerchief, asked
several of my brother officers if they could perceive any peculiar
smell about it. No, none of them could. 'Well, all I know is,' said
I, 'that I have driven a musk-rat five times over that
pocket-handkerchief just now.'"

When I was at Nagpore in 1864 I made friends with one of these shrews,
and it would come out every evening at my whistle and take
grasshoppers out of my fingers. It seemed to be very short-sighted,
and did not notice the insect till quite close to my hand, when, with
a short swift spring, it would pounce upon its prey.

A correspondent of _The Asian_, writing from Ceylon, gives an account
of a musk-rat attacking a large frog, and holding on to it in spite
of interference.

McMaster says that these shrews will also eat bread, and adds:
"insects, however, form their chief diet, so they thus do us more
good than harm. I once disturbed one that evidently had been eating
part of a large scorpion."


NO. 126. SOREX MURINUS.
_The Mouse-coloured Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 70_).

HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Brownish-grey above, paler beneath; fur coarser and
longer than in the last species, and in the young ones the colour
is more of a bluish-grey, browner on the back. The ears are larger
than those of _S. caerulescens_; tail nearly equal to the body, thick
at the base, and sparsely covered with long coarse hairs; feet and
tail flesh-coloured in the living animal.

SIZE.--Head and body about 6 inches; tail, 3-1/2 inches.

"This," as Jerdon says, "is the common musk-rat of China, Burmah,
and the Malayan countries, extending into Lower Bengal and Southern
India, especially the Malabar Coast, where it is said to be the common
species, the bite of which is considered venomous by the natives."
Kellaart mentions it in Ceylon as the "common _musk shrew_ or rat
of Europeans;" but he confuses it with the last species. He gives
the Singhalese name as "_koone meeyo_." The musky odour of this
species is less powerful, and is almost absent in the young. Blyth
states that he was never able to obtain a specimen of it in Lower
Bengal, yet the natives here discriminate between the light and
dark-coloured shrews, and hold, with the people of Malabar, that the
bite of the latter is venomous. Horsfield states that it has been
found in Upper India, Nepal, and Assam, and he gives the vernacular
name in the last-named country as "_seeka_."


NO. 127. SOREX NEMORIVAGUS.
_The Nepal Wood Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 71_).

HABITAT.--Nepal.

DESCRIPTION.--Differs from the last "by a stouter make, by ears
smaller and legs entirely nude, and by a longer and more tetragonal
tail; colour sooty black, with a vague reddish smear; the nude parts
fleshy grey; snout to rump, 3-5/8 inches; tail, 2 inches, planta,
11/16 inch. Found only in woods and coppices."--_Hodgson_.


NO. 128. SOREX SERPENTARIUS.
_The Rufescent Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 72_).

HABITAT.--Southern India, Burmah and Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Colour dusky greyish, with rufous brown tips to the
hairs (_Blyth_). Above dusky slate colour with rufescent tips to the
fur; beneath paler, with a faint rufous tinge about the breast
(_Jerdon_). Fur short ashy-brown, with a ferruginous smear on the
upper surface; beneath a little paler coloured (_Kellaart_). Teeth
and limbs small; tail slender.

SIZE.--Head and body about 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2 inches; skull,
1-2/10 inch.

The smell of this musk shrew is said by Kellaart, who names it _S.
Kandianus_, to be quite as powerful as that of _S. caerulescens_.
Blyth seems to think that this animal gets more rufescent with age,
judging from two examples sent from Mergui. By some oversight, I
suppose, he has not included this species in his 'Catalogue of the
Mammals of Burmah.'


NO. 129. SOREX SATURATIOR.
_The Dark Brown Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 73_).

HABITAT.--Darjeeling.

DESCRIPTION.--"Colour uniform deep brown, inclining to blackish,
with a very slight rufescent shade; fur short, with an admixture of
a few lengthened piles, when adpressed to the body smooth, but
reversed somewhat harsh and rough; tail cylindrical, long, gradually
tapering; mouth elongated, regularly attenuated, ears moderate,
rounded."

SIZE.--Head and body, 5-1/2 inches; tail, 3 inches.

Jerdon seems to think this is the same as _S. Griffithi_ or closely
allied; I cannot say anything about this, as I have no personal
knowledge of the species, but on comparison with the description of
_S. Griffithi_ (which see further on) I should say they were
identical.


NO. 130. SOREX TYTLERI.
_The Dehra Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 74_).

HABITAT.--Dehra Doon.

DESCRIPTION.--"Light rufescent sandy brown, paler beneath;
unusually well clad even on the feet and tail, this last being covered
with shortish fur having numerous long hairs intermixed; form very
robust; basal portion of tail very thick."

SIZE.--Head and body, 4-1/2 inches; tail, 2-3/4 inches; hind foot,
7/8 inch.


NO. 131. SOREX NIGER.
_The Neilgherry Wood Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 75_).

HABITAT.--Ootacamund, Neilgherry hills.

DESCRIPTION.--"Blackish-brown, with a rufescent shade on the upper
parts; abdomen greyish; tail equal in length to the entire animal,
exclusive of the head, gradually tapering to a point; snout greatly
attenuated. Length of head and body, 3-1/2 inches; of the tail, 2-1/2
inches."--_Horsfield_.


NO. 132. SOREX LEUCOPS.
_The Long-tailed Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 76_).

HABITAT.--Nepal.

DESCRIPTION.--Uniform blackish-brown colour; tail very long and
slender, exceeding in length the head and body, terminating in a
whitish tip of half an inch long.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches. Jerdon supposes
that it is found at great altitudes, from Hodgson having in another
place described it (MSS.) under the name _nivicola_.


NO. 133. SOREX SOCCATUS.
_The Hairy-footed Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 77_).

HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Mussoorie.

DESCRIPTION.--According to Hodgson, nearly the size of _S.
nemorivagus_, "but distinguished by its feet being clad with fur down
to the nails, and by its depressed head and tumid bulging cheeks
(mystaceal region); ears large and exposed; colour a uniform sordid
or brownish-slaty blue, extending to the clad extremities; snout to
rump, 3-1/2 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches; planta, 13/16 inch. This
animal was caught in a wood plentifully watered, but not near the
water. It had no musky smell when brought to me dead."


NO. 134. SOREX MONTANUS.
_The Ceylon Black Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Ceylon, mountainous parts.

DESCRIPTION.--"Fur above sooty black without any ferruginous smear,
beneath lighter coloured; whiskers long, silvery grey; some parts
of legs and feet greyish, clothed with adpressed hairs; claws short,
whitish; ears large, round, naked; outer margin lying on a level with
the fur of the head and neck, the ears being thus concealed
posteriorly; tail tetragonal, tapering, shorter than head and
body."--_Kellaart_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3-3/4 inches; tail, 2-1/4 inches; hind feet,
1/3 inch.


NO. 135. SOREX FERRUGINEUS.
_The Ceylon Rufescent Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Ceylon, Dimboola, below Newara Elia.

DESCRIPTION.--"Colour uniform dusky or dusky slate, with the tips
of the fur rufescent; fur long; large sebaceous anal glands; smell
very powerful."--_Kellaart_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3-3/4 inches; tail, 2-1/4 inches.


NO. 136. SOREX GRIFFITHI.
_The Large Black Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Khasia hills and Arracan.

DESCRIPTION.--"Deep blackish-brown, with a slight rufous reflection
in a certain light; fur short, close, soft, and adpressed; tail thick
at the base, with a few long very slender straggling hairs along its
entire length; ears small and rounded; snout elongated."--_Horsfield_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 5-3/4 inches; tail, 2-1/2 inches.

Horsfield puts this down as having been found in Afghanistan by
Griffiths, but this is an error owing to Griffiths' Afghanistan and
Khasia collections having got mixed up.


NO. 137. SOREX HETERODON.

HABITAT.--Khasia hills.

DESCRIPTION.--"Very similar to _S. soccatus_ in general appearance,
but less dark coloured, with shorter fur, and pale instead of
blackish feet and tail underneath; the feet too are broader,
especially the hind feet, and they have a hairy patch below the heel"
(_Blyth_). The skull is narrower, and the upper incisors less
strongly hooked.


_GENUS FEROCULUS_.

Teeth small; upper incisors shorter and less strongly hooked than
in restricted _Sorex_; posterior spur large; lower incisors serrated
with three coronal points. Feet very large.


NO. 138. FEROCULUS MACROPUS.
_The Large-footed Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur, long, soft uniform blackish--faint rufescent
tinge.

SIZE.--Head and body 4-1/4 inches; tail 2-1/4.

* * * * *

The following species are of a more diminutive type, and are commonly
called "pigmy-shrews;" in other respects they are true shrews.


NO. 139. SOREX HODGSONI.
_The Nepal Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 78_).

HABITAT.--Nepal and Sikim.

DESCRIPTION.--Brown, with a slight tinge of chestnut; feet and tail
furred; claws white.

SIZE.--Head and body 1-1/2 inch; tail, 1 inch.

Found in coppices and fields; rarely entering houses.


NO. 140. SOREX PERROTETI.
_The Neilgherry Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 79_).

HABITAT.--Neilgherry hills, probably also other parts of Southern
India.

DESCRIPTION.--"Back deep blackish-brown; belly pale; limbs and feet
brown; palms and plantae clad with hairs; ears large, conspicuous."

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-4/12 inch; tail, 11/12 inch.


NO. 141. SOREX MICRONYX.
_The Small-clawed Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 80_).

HABITAT.--West Himalayas, Kumaon, Mussoorie.

DESCRIPTION.--Claws very minute, with fine hairs impending them,
only to be detected by a lens; fur paler and more chestnut-brown than
any other of these minute shrews, and more silvery below.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-5/8 inch; tail 1-1/8 inch.


NO. 142. SOREX MELANODON.
_The Black-toothed Pigmy-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 81_).

HABITAT.--Calcutta.

DESCRIPTION.--Called _melanodon_ from the remarkable colouring of
its teeth, which are piceous and white-tipped; colour uniform
fuscous, scarcely paler beneath.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-7/8 inch; tail, 1-1/16 inch.


NO. 143. SOREX NUDIPES.
_The Naked-footed Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim.

DESCRIPTION.--"Remarkable for its naked feet and very large ears;
also for the odoriferous glands on the sides being strongly developed,
whereas we can detect them in no other of these minute species"
(_Blyth_). Colour brown above, a little grizzled and glistening,
more silvery below.

SIZE.--Head and body, 1-3/4 inch; tail, 1-1/16 inch.


NO. 144. SOREX ATRATUS.
_The Black Pigmy-Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Khasia hills.

DESCRIPTION.--"Very dark colour, extending over the feet and tail
which is even _blackish underneath_; fur blackish-brown above, a
little tinged rufescent, and with dark greyish underneath; the feet
and tail conspicuously furred, beside the scattered long hairs upon
the latter."--_Blyth_.

This species was determined by Blyth on a single specimen, which was
found without its head, impaled by some shrike upon a thorn at
Cherrapunji. The same thing occasionally occurs in England, when the
common shrew may be found impaled by the rufous-backed shrike
(_Lanius collurio_).


_SUB-GENUS SORICULUS_ (_Blyth_).

The foregoing species being of the _white-toothed_ variety (with the
exception of _S. melanodon_, which, however, exhibits coloration
decidedly the _reverse_ of the following type), we now come to the
shrews with teeth tipped with a darker colour; the dentition is as
in the restricted shrews, with the peculiarity of colour above
mentioned. The hind feet of ordinary proportions, unadapted for
aquatic habits, and the tail slender and tapering, like that of a
mouse, instead of being cylindrical with a stiff brush at the end.


NO. 145. SORICULUS NIGRESCENS.
_The Mouse-tailed Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 82_).

HABITAT.--Sikim and Nepal.

DESCRIPTION.--"Above dark-blackish or blackish-brown, slightly
tinged rufescent, and with a silvery cast in certain lights; beneath
greyish-black" (_Jerdon_). Feet and claws pale; tail slender,
straight and naked.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3-1/4 inches; tail, 1-1/2 inch; hind foot, 5/8
inch.

Jerdon says that Kellaart named an allied species from Ceylon
_Corsira newera ellia_, but I have not been able to find it in his
'Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae,' nor elsewhere.


_GENUS CROSSOPUS_ (_Wagner_).

The hind feet large; the lower surface, as also of the tail, fringed
with stiff hairs; tail somewhat compressed towards the tip; habits
aquatic.


NO. 146. CROSSOPUS HIMALAICUS.
_The Himalayan Water-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 83_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Oong lagniyu_, Lepcha; _Choopitsi_, Bhot.

HABITAT.--Darjeeling.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur dark brown above, paler beneath; rusty brown on
the lower part of throat and middle of belly, according to Jerdon;
slate coloured back with scattered long hairs, which are longer and
white-tipped on the sides and rump, according to Blyth's memoir; ears
very small, hairy, concealed; tail long, slender, fringed with stiff
whitish hair beneath; whiskers long and brown.

SIZE.--Head and body, 5 to 6 inches; tail about 3-1/2 inches; hind
foot, 3/4 to 11/12 inch.

Jerdon procured this water-shrew at Darjeeling in the Little Rungeet
river; it is said to live on small fish, tadpoles, water insects,
&c. The movements of the English water-shrew, when swimming, are very
agile. It propels itself by alternate strokes of its hind feet, but
with an undulating motion, its sides being in a manner extended, and
body flattened, showing a narrow white border on each side; then the
fur collects a mass of tiny air bubbles which make the submerged
portion glow like silver. It prefers clear still water, but at the
same time will make its way up running streams and ditches, and
occasionally wanders away into fields, and has been found in houses
and barns.

Its food is principally aquatic insects, worms, mollusca, and
freshwater crustacea. In Bell's 'British Quadrupeds' its mode of
poking about amongst stones in search of fresh-water shrimps
(_Gammarus pulex_) is well described. Mr. F. Buckland states that
he once dissected a water-shrew and found the intestines to contain
a dark fluid pulpy matter, which, on being examined by a microscope,
proved to consist entirely of the horny cases and legs of minute water
insects. Continental writers declare that it will attack any small
animal that comes in its way, giving it quite a ferocious character,
and it is said to destroy fish spawn. I can hardly believe in its
destroying large fish by eating out their brain and eyes. Brehm, who
gives it credit for this, must have been mistaken. I have also read
of its attacking a rat in a trap which was dead, and was discovered
devouring it, having succeeded in making a small hole through the
skin.

In England this animal breeds in May. The young are from five to seven
in number, and are brought forth in a small chamber in the bank, which
is constructed with several openings, one of which is usually under
the level of the water.

Dr. Anderson has very fully described the Himalayan species under
the name of _Chimarrogale Himalaica_. He caught a specimen in a
mountain stream at Ponsee in the Kakhyen hills, 3500 feet above the
sea level, and observed it running over the stones in the bed of the
stream and plunging freely into the water hunting for insects.


_GENUS NYCTOGALE_.

Head and skull as in _Soricidae_, but with palmated feet and
compressed tail, as in _Myogalidae_. Special characteristic, large
pads on the soles of the feet, which form sucking discs.


NO. 147. NYCTOGALE ELEGANS.
_The Thibet Water-Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Moupin in Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur of two kinds, a soft under down of slaty grey
colour through which pass longer hairs, grey at the base with white
tips, "causing the animal to vary considerably in appearance
according as these hairs are raised or laid flat;" ears quite
concealed, and without a conch; tail stout, longer than the body,
quadrangular at the base, then triangular, and finally flattened;
feet large and palmated, with large pads on the soles, depressed in
the middle, forming sucking discs, which are a peculiar
characteristic of this animal.

SIZE.--Head and body about 3-1/2 inches; tail about 4 inches.

Though this is not properly an Indian animal, I have thought fit to
include it as belonging to a border country in which much interest
is taken, and which has as yet been imperfectly explored.


_GENUS CORSIRA_.

Of Gray, _Amphisorex_ of Duvernoy; differs in dentition from the last
in having the lower quasi-incisors serrated with three or four
coronal points, and the anterior point of the upper incisors not
prolonged beyond the posterior spur, tipped with ferruginous; the
lateral small teeth in the upper jaw are five in number, diminishing
in size from the first backwards. Tail cylindrical, not tapering,
and furnished with a stiffish brush at the extremity. The common
British land-shrew is of this type.


NO. 148. CORSIRA ALPINA.
_The Alpine Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 84_).

HABITAT.--Darjeeling.

DESCRIPTION.--Deep blackish brown, very slightly rufescent in
certain lights; tail slender, nearly naked, very slightly attenuated,
compressed at the tip.

SIZE.--Head and body, 2-1/2 inches; tail 2-1/2 inches.

This is identical with the European Alpine shrew; the _Sorex
caudatus_ of Horsfield's Catalogue (No. 148), which was a specimen
named by Hodgson, is also the same animal.


_GENUS ANUROSOREX_.

Remarkably for its large head, nude, scaly extremities, and
extremely short, nude, scaly tail. "The structure of the ear, limbs
and tail has special reference to a burrowing animal--the ear being
valvular, so that it may be effectually closed against the entrance
of foreign substances, and the feet devoid of hair, but scaly, and
the tail reduced to very small dimensions. The eye is also
excessively small, and buried deep in the dense silky fur. The hind
feet, contrary to what is almost invariably the case in burrowing
mammals, are larger than the fore feet."--_Anderson_.


NO. 149. ANUROSOREX ASSAMENSIS.
_The Assam Burrowing Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Assam, Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--General colour dark slaty, faintly washed with
brownish rusty on the long hairs of the rump; fur long and silky,
longest over the rump; occasional long brown hairs with pale tips
are scattered over the body; long whiskers, yellow claws; naked parts
of snout, limbs and tail flesh-coloured.

SIZE.--Head and body nearly 3 inches; tail, 1/2 inch; forefoot, 1/2
inch; hind foot, 3/4 inch.

The skull and dentition of this animal are essentially soricine. The
Thibetan species (_A. squamipes_) is described as being over four
inches in length, of a greyish colour, with a greenish-brown tinge;
feet and nails whitish. It lives in burrows which it digs in the earth.
I think it should properly come after the moles, which it resembles
in some particulars.


FAMILY ERINACEIDAE--THE HEDGEHOGS.

The molar teeth broad; the hinder ones nearly square, the tubercles
on their upper surface rounded; the other teeth are three incisors
on each side, of which the inner one is considerably larger than the
rest; behind these, separated by a little gap, come three premolars
gradually increasing in size, then one having much the appearance
of a true molar, but furnished with a cutting edge; then three molar
teeth, two of which are nearly square with strong tubercles. The last
molar is small. In the lower jaw the lowermost incisor is very large,
and projects almost horizontally forwards, and it is followed by
three small teeth now acknowledged to be premolars, with another
large premolar, which is of the nature of a carnassial or cutting
tooth acting on the one in the upper jaw. Then three molars as above,
two large and one small, but with sharp tubercles. The skull has a
more carnivorous form; it has "a complete zygomatic arch, and the
tympanic bone forms a bundle-like swelling on each side of the back
of the skull." Feet pentadactylous or five-toed; legs very short.
The tibia and fibula (two bones of the shank) are joined together.
The back is clothed with hair intermixed with sharp spines or
bristles. Tail short or wanting entirely.

[Figure: Dentition of Hedgehog.]


_GENUS ERINACEUS_.

The European hedgehog is well known to most of us. Few boys who have
lived a country life have been without one at some time or other as
a pet. I used to keep mine in a hole at the root of an old apple-tree,
which was my special property, and they were occasionally brought
into the house at the cook's request to demolish the black-beetles
in the kitchen. These they devour with avidity and pursue them with
the greatest ardour. They also eat slugs, worms, and snails; worms
they seize and eat from end to end, like a Neapolitan boy with a string
of maccaroni, slowly masticating, the unconsumed portion being
constantly transferred from one side of the mouth to the other, so
that both sides of the jaws may come into play. Dr. Dallas quaintly
remarks on the process: "This must be an unpleasant operation for
the worm, much as its captor may enjoy it." Toads, frogs, mice, and
even snakes are eaten by the European hedgehog. It would be
interesting to find out whether the Indian hedgehog also attacks
snakes; even the viper in Europe is devoured by this animal, who
apparently takes little heed of its bite. The European species also
eats eggs when it can get them, and I have no doubt does much damage
to those birds who make their nests on the ground.

Few dogs will tackle a hedgehog, for the little creature at once rolls
itself into a spiny ball, all sharp prickles, by means of the
contraction of a set of cutaneous muscles, the most important of
which, the _orbicularis panniculi_, form a broad band encircling the
body which draws together the edges of the spiny part of the skin.
There is a most interesting account of the mechanism of the spines
in Mr. F. Buckland's notes to White's 'Natural History of Selborne,'
vol. ii., page 76. A jet of water poured on to the part within which
the head is concealed will make the creature unroll, and it is said
that foxes and some dogs have discovered a way of applying this plan,
and also that foxes will roll a hedgehog into a ditch or pond, and
thus make him either expose himself to attack or drown. Gipsies eat
hedgehogs, and consider them a delicacy--the meat being white and
as tender as a chicken (not quite equal to porcupine, I should say);
they cook them by rolling them in clay, and baking them till the clay
is dry; when the ball is broken open the prickles come off with the
crust.

[Figure: Hedgehog.]

Hedgehogs have had several popular fallacies concerning them. They
were supposed to suck cows dry during the night and to be proof
against poisons. Mr. Frank Buckland tried prussic acid on one with
fatal results, but he says the bite of a viper seemed to have no effect.
Pallas, I know, has remarked that hedgehogs will eat hundreds of
cantharides beetles with impunity, whereas one or two will cause
extreme agony to a cat or dog. The female goes with young about seven
weeks, and she has from three to eight in number. The little ones
when born have soft spines--which, however, soon harden--are blind,
and, with the exception of the rudimentary prickles, quite naked.
They are white at birth, but in about a month acquire the colour of
the mother.


NO. 150. ERINACEUS COLLARIS.
_The Collared Hedgehog_ (_Jerdon's No. 85_).

HABITAT.--Northern India and Afghanistan. Dallas says from Madras
to Candahar; but Jerdon calls it the North Indian hedgehog, and
assigns to it the North-west, Punjab, and Sind, giving Southern India
to the next species.

DESCRIPTION.--Spines irregularly interwoven, ringed with white and
black, with yellowish tips, or simply white and black, or black with
a white ring in the middle; ears large; chin white; belly and legs
pale brown.

SIZE.--Head and body, 8 to 9 inches; tail, 7/12 inch.

I have found this species in the Punjab near Lahore. One evening,
whilst walking in the dusk, a small animal, which I took to be a rat,
ran suddenly between my legs. Now I confess to an antipathy to rats,
and, though I would not willingly hurt any animal, I could not resist
an impulsive kick, which sent my supposed rat high in the air. I felt
a qualm of conscience immediately afterwards, and ran to pick up my
victim, and was sorry to find I had perpetrated such an assault on
an unoffending little hedgehog, which was however only stunned, and
was carried off by me to the Zoological Gardens. Captain Hutton
writes of them that they feed on beetles, lizards, and snails; "when
touched they have the habit of suddenly jerking up the back with some
force so as to prick the fingers or mouth of the assailant, and at
the same time emitting a blowing sound, not unlike the noise produced
when blowing upon a flame with a pair of bellows." He also says they
are very tenacious of life, bearing long abstinence with apparent
ease; when alarmed they roll themselves up into a ball like the
European species.

Hutton also remarks that _E. collaris_, on hearing a noise, jerks
the skin and quills of its neck completely over its head, leaving
only the tip of the nose free.


NO. 151. ERINACEUS MICROPUS.
_The Small-footed Hedgehog_ (_Jerdon's No. 86_).

HABITAT.--South India.

DESCRIPTION.--"Ears moderately large; form somewhat elongated; tail
very short, concealed; feet and limbs very small; head and ears nude,
sooty-coloured; belly very thinly clad with yellowish hairs; spines
ringed dark brown and whitish, or whitish with a broad brown
sub-terminal ring, tipped white."--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body about 6 inches. Dr. Anderson considers this as
identical with _E. collaris_.


NO. 152. ERINACEUS PICTUS.
_The Painted Hedgehog_.

HABITAT.--Central India, Goona, Ulwar, Agra, Kurrachee.

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the above, but the tips of the spines are
more broadly white, and the brown bands below not so dark; the ears
are somewhat larger than _micropus_, and the feet narrower and not
so long.


NO. 153. ERINACEUS GRAYI.

HABITAT.--North-west India.

DESCRIPTION.--The general colour is blackish-brown; the spines are
narrowly tipped with black, succeeded by a narrowish yellow band;
then a blackish-brown band, the rest of the spine being yellowish;
the broad dark-brown band is so strongly developed as to give the
animal its dark appearance when viewed from the side; some animals
are, however, lighter than others. The feet are large; the fore-feet
broad, somewhat truncated, with moderately long toes and powerful
claws.

SIZE.--Head and body about 6-3/4 inches.


NO. 154. ERINACEUS BLANFORDI (_Anderson_).

HABITAT.--Sind, where one specimen was obtained by Mr. W. T.
Blanford, at Rohri.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle rather short, not much pointed; ears
moderately large, but broader than long, and rounded at the tips;
feet larger and broader than in the next species, with the first toe
more largely developed than in the last. The spines meet in a point
on the forehead, and there is no bare patch on the vertex. Each spine
is broadly tipped with deep black, succeeded by a very broad yellow
band, followed by a dusky brown base; fur deep brown; a few white
hairs on chin and anterior angle of ear.

SIZE.--Head and body, 5.36 inches.


NO. 155. ERINACEUS JERDONI (_Anderson_).

HABITAT.--Sind, Punjab frontier.

DESCRIPTION.--Muzzle moderately long and pointed; ears large, round
at tip and broad at base; feet large, especially the fore-feet; claws
strong. The spines begin on a line with the anterior margins of the
ears; large nude area on the vertex; spines with two white and three
black bands, beginning with a black band. When they are laid flat
the animal looks black; but an erection the white shows and gives
a variegated appearance.

SIZE.--Head and body about 7-1/2 inches.


NO. 156. ERINACEUS MEGALOTIS.
_The Large-eared Hedgehog_.

HABITAT.--Afghanistan.

More information is required about this species. Jerdon seems to
think it may be the same as described by Pallas (_E. auritus_), which
description I have before me now ('Zoographica Rosso Asiatica,' vol.
i. page 138), but I am unable to say from comparison that the two
are identical--the ears and the muzzle are longer than in the common
hedgehog. This is the species which he noticed devouring blistering
beetles with impunity. It has a very delicate fur of long silky white
hairs, covering the head, breast and abdomen, "forming also along
the sides a beautiful ornamental border" (_Horsfield_, from a
specimen brought from Mesopotamia by Commander Jones, I.N.)

The space to which I am obliged to limit myself will not allow of
my describing at greater length; but to those of my readers who are
interested in the Indian hedgehogs, I recommend the paper by Dr. J.
Anderson in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal' for 1878,
page 195, with excellently drawn plates of the heads, skulls and feet
of the various species. There is one peculiarity which he notices
regarding the skull of _E. collaris_ (or, as he calls it,
_micropus_): the zygomatic arch is not continuous as in the other
species, but is broken in the middle, the gap being caused by the
absence of the _malar_ or cheek-bone. In this respect it resembles,
though Dr. Anderson does not notice it, the _Centetidae_ or _Tanrecs_
of Madagascar.

Dr. Anderson's classification is very simple and good. He has two
groups: the first, containing _E. micropus_ and _E. pictus_, is
distinguished by the _second upper premolar simple, one-fanged, the
feet club-shaped; soles tubercular_. The second group, containing
_E. Grayi_, _E. Blanfordi_ and _E. Jerdoni_, has _the second upper
premolar compound, three-fanged, and the feet well developed and
broad_. The first group has also a division or bare area on the
vertex; the second has not.


FAMILY HYLOMIDAE (_Anderson_).

The following little animal has affinities to both _Erinaceidae_ and
_Tupaiidae_, and therefore it may appropriately be placed here. Dr.
Anderson on the above ground has placed it in a separate family,
otherwise it is generally classed with the _Erinaceidae_. Its skull
has the general form of the skull of _Tupaia_, but in its imperfect
orbit, in the rudiment of a post-orbital process, and in the absence
of any imperfections of the zygomatic arch and in the position of
the lachrymal foramen it resembles the skull of _Erinaceus_. The
teeth are 44 in number: Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars,
4--4/4--4; molars, 3--3/3--3, and partake of the character of both
_Tupaia_ and _Erinaceus_. The shank-bones being united and the
rudimentary tail create an affinity to the latter, whilst its
arboreal habits are those of the former.


_GENUS HYLOMYS_.

Head elongate; ears round; feet arboreal, naked below; tail
semi-nude; pelage not spiny.


NO. 157. HYLOMYS PEGUENSIS.
_The Short-tailed Tree-Shrew_.

HABITAT.--Burmah, Pegu, Ponsee in the Kakhyen hills.

Appears to be identical with the species from Borneo (_H. suillus_).


FAMILY TUPAIIDAE.

These interesting little animals were first accurately described
about the year 1820, though, as I have before stated, it was noticed
in the papers connected with Captain Cook's voyages, but was then
supposed to be a squirrel. Sir T. Stamford Raffles writes: "This
singular little animal was first observed tame in the house of a
gentleman at Penang, and afterwards found wild at Singapore in the
woods near Bencoolen, where it lives on the fruit of the kayogadis,
&c." Another species, _T. Javanica_, had, however, been discovered
in Java fourteen years before, but not published till 1821. They are
sprightly little creatures, easily tamed, and, not being purely
insectivorous, are not difficult to feed in captivity. Sir T. S.
Raffles describes one that roamed freely all over the house,
presenting himself regularly at meal-times for milk and fruit. Dr.
Sal. Muller describes the other species (_T. Javanica_) as a
confiding, simple little animal, always in motion, seeking its food
at one time amongst dry leaves and moss on the ground, and again on
the stems and branches of trees, poking its nose into every crevice.
Its nest, he says, is formed of moss at some height from the ground,
supported on clusters of orchideous plants. Dr. Cantor, in his
'Catalogue of the Mammalia of the Malayan Peninsula,' writes as
follows: "In a state of nature it lives singly or in pairs, fiercely
attacking intruders of its own species. When several are confined
together they fight each other, or jointly attack and destroy the
weakest. The natural food is mixed insectivorous and frugivorous.
In confinement, individuals may be fed exclusively on either, though
preference is evinced for insects; and eggs, fish and earth-worms
are equally relished. A short, peculiar, tremulous, whistling sound,
often heard by calls and answers in the Malayan jungle, marks their
pleasurable emotions, as for instance on the appearance of food,
while the contrary is expressed by shrill protracted cries. Their
disposition is very restless, and their great agility enables them
to perform the most extraordinary bounds in all directions, in which
exercise they spend the day, till night sends them to sleep in their
rudely-constructed lairs in the highest branches of trees. At times
they will sit on their haunches, holding their food between their
forelegs, and after feeding they smooth the head and face with both
fore-paws, and lick the lips and palms. They are also fond of water,
both to drink and to bathe in. The female usually produces one young."

The above description reminds one forcibly of the habits of squirrels,
so it is no wonder that at one time these little creatures were
confounded with the _Sciuridae_.


_GENUS TUPAIA_.

The dentition of this genus is as follows: Either four or six incisors
in the upper jaw, but always six in the lower; four premolars and
three molars in each jaw, upper and lower. The skull has a complete
bony orbit, and the zygomatic arch is also complete, but with a small
elongated perforation; the muzzle attenuated, except in _T.
Ellioti_; ears oval; the stomach possesses a caecum or blind gut;
the eyes are large and prominent, and the tail bushy, like that of
a squirrel; the toes are five in number, with strong claws; the
shank-bones are not united as in the hedgehogs. The diet is mixed
insectivorous and frugivorous.


NO. 158. TUPAIA ELLIOTI.
_Elliot's Tree-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 87_).

HABITAT.--Southern India, Godavery district, Cuttack; the Central
Provinces, Bhagulpore range.

[Figure: Dentition of _Tupaia_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Fur pale rufous brown, darker on the back and paler
on the sides; the chin, throat, breast and belly yellowish, also a
streak of the same under the tail; the upper surface of the tail is
of the same colour as the centre of the back; there is a pale line
from the muzzle over the eye, and a similar patch beneath it; the
fur of this species is shorter and more harsh, and the head is more
blunt than in the Malayan members of the family.

SIZE.--Head and body, 7 to 8 inches; tail, 7 to 9 inches.


NO. 159. TUPAIA PEGUANA.
_Syn_.--TUPAIA BELANGERI.
_The Pegu Tree-Shrew_ (_Jerdon's No. 88_).

HABITAT.--Sikim (Darjeeling), Assam and through Arakan to
Tenasserim.

[Figure: _Tupaia Peguana_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Jerdon says: "General hue a dusky greenish-brown, the
hairs being ringed brown and yellow; lower parts the same, but
lighter; and with a pale buff line; a stripe from the throat to the
vent, broadest between the forearms and then narrowing; ears livid
red, with a few short hairs; palms and soles dark livid red." Dr.
Anderson remarks that the fur is of two kinds of hairs--one fine and
wavy at the extremity, banded with black, yellow and black; the
second being strong and somewhat bristly, longer than the other, and
banded with a black basal half and then followed by rings of yellow
and black, then yellow again with a black tip, the black basal half
of the hairs being hidden, the annulation of the free portions
produces a rufous olive-grey tint over the body and tail.

SIZE.--Head and body about 7 inches; tail, 6-1/2.

Jerdon says of it that those he procured at Darjeeling frequented
the zone from 3000 to 6000 feet; they were said by the natives to
kill small birds, mice, &c. The Lepcha name he gives is
_Kalli-tang-zhing_. McMaster in his notes writes: "The Burmese
Tupaia is a harmless little animal; in the dry season living in trees
and in the monsoon freely entering our houses, and in impudent
familiarity taking the place held in India by the common palm
squirrel. It is, however, probably from its rat-like head and
thievish expression, very unpopular. I have found them in rat-traps,
however, so possibly they deserve to be so." He adds he cannot endorse
the statement regarding their extraordinary agility mentioned by Dr.
Cantor and quoted by Jerdon, for he had seen his terriers catch them,
which they were never able to do with squirrels; and cats often seize
them.

Mason says: "One that made his home in the mango-tree near my house
at Tonghoo made himself nearly as familiar as the cat. Sometimes I
had to drive him off the bed, and he was very fond of putting his
nose into the teacups immediately after breakfast, and acquired a
taste both for tea and coffee. He lost his life at last by
incontinently walking into a rat-trap."

The Burmese name for it is _Tswai_ in Arracan. Jerdon states that
it is one of the few novelties that had escaped the notice of Mr.
Brian Hodgson, but Dr. Anderson mentions a specimen (unnamed) from
Nepal in the British Museum which was obtained by Hodgson.


NO. 160. TUPAIA CHINENSIS (_Anderson_).

HABITAT.--Burmah, Kakhyen hills, east of the valley of the
Irrawaddy.

DESCRIPTION.--Ferruginous above, yellowish below, the basal
two-thirds of the hair being blackish, succeeded by a yellow, a black,
and then a yellow and black band, which is terminal; there is a faint
shoulder streak washed with yellowish; the chest pale orange yellow,
which hue extends along the middle of the belly as a narrow line;
under surfaces of limbs grizzled as on the back, but paler; upper
surface of tail concolorous with the dorsum.

SIZE.--Head and body, 6-1/2 inches; tail, 6.16.

The teeth are larger than those of _T. Ellioti_, but smaller than
the Malayan _T. ferruginea_, and the skull is smaller than that of
the last species, and the teeth are also smaller. Dr. Anderson says:
"When I first observed the animal it was on a grassy clearing close
to patches of fruit, and was so comporting itself that in the distance
I mistook it for a squirrel. The next time I noticed it was in
hedgerows."

The other varieties of _Tupaia_ belong to the Malayan
Archipelago--_T. ferruginea_, _T. tana_, _T. splendidula_, and _T.
Javanica_ to Borneo and Java. There is one species which inhabits
the Nicobars.


NO. 161. TUPAIA NICOBARICA.

HABITAT.--Nicobar Island.

DESCRIPTION.--Front and sides of the face, outside of fore-limbs,
throat and chest, golden yellow; inner side of hind limbs rich red
brown, which is also the colour of the hind legs and feet; head dark
brown, with golden hairs intermixed; back dark maroon, almost black;
upper surface of the tail the same; pale oval patch between shoulders,
dark band on each side between it and fore-limbs, passing forward
over the ears.

SIZE.--Head and body, 7.10; tail, 8 inches.

* * * * *

There is a little animal allied to the genus _Tupaia_, which has
hitherto been found only in Borneo and Sumatra, but as Sumatran types
have been found in Tenasserim, perhaps some day the _Ptilocercus
Lowii_ may be discovered there. It has a rather shorter head than
the true Banxrings, more like _T. Ellioti_, but its dentition is
nearly the same, as also are its habits. Its chief peculiarity lies
in its tail, which is long, slender and naked, like that of a rat
for two-thirds of its length, the terminal third being adorned with
a broad fringe of hair on each side, like the wings of an arrow or
the plumes of a feather. There is an excellent coloured picture of
it in the 'Proc. Zool. Society,' vol. of Plates.

* * * * *

I had almost concluded my sketch of the Insectivora without alluding
to one most interesting genus, which ought properly to have come
between the shrews and the hedgehogs, the _Gymnura_, which, though
common in the Malay countries, has only recently been found in
Burmah--a fact of which I was not aware till I saw it included in
a paper on Tenasserim mammals by Mr. W. T. Blanford ('Jour. As. Soc.
Beng.,' 1878, page 150). Before I refer to his notes I may state that
this animal is a sort of link between the _Soricidae_ and the
_Erinaceidae_, and De Blainville proposed for it the generic name
of _Echinosorex_, but the one generally adopted is _Gymnura_, which
was the specific name given to it by its discoverer, Sir Stamford
Raffles, who described it as a _Viverra_ (_V. gymnura_); however,
Horsfield and Vigors and Lesson, the two former in England and the
latter in France, saw that it was not a civet, and, taking the naked
tail as a peculiarity, they called the genus _Gymnura_, and the
specimen _Rafflesii_. There is not much on record regarding the
anatomy of the animal, and in what respects it internally resembles
the hedgehogs. Outwardly it has the general soricine form, though
much larger than the largest shrew. The long tail too is against its
resemblance to the hedgehogs, which rests principally on its spiny
pelage.

The teeth in some degree resemble _Erinaceus_, the molars and
premolars especially, but the number in all is greater, there being
forty-four, or eight more. It would be interesting to know whether
the zygomatic arch is perfect and the tibia and fibula united, as
in the hedgehogs, or wanting and distinct as in the shrews. I have
given a slight sketch in outline of the animal.


NO. 162. GYMNURA RAFFLESII.
_The Bulau_.

HABITAT.--Tenasserim (Sumatra, Borneo); Malacca.

[Figure: _Gymnura Rafflesii_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Long tapering head, with elongated muzzle, short legs,
shrew-like body, with a long, round, tapering and scaly rat-like tail,
naked, with the exception of a few stiff hairs here and there among
the scales. In each jaw on each side three incisors, one canine (those
in the upper jaw double-fanged) and seven premolars and molars; feet
five-toed, plantigrade, armed with strong claws. Fur of two kinds,
fine and soft, with longer and more spiny ones intermixed. The colour
varies a good deal, the general tint being greyish-black, with head
and neck pale or whitish, and with a broad black patch over the eye.
Some have been found almost wholly white, with the black eye-streak
and only a portion of the longer hairs black, so that much stress
cannot be laid on the colouring; the tail is blackish at the base,
whitish and compressed at the tip. Mr. Blanford says: "The small
scales covering the tail are indistinctly arranged in rings and
sub-imbricate; on the lower surface the scales are convex
and distinctly imbricate, the bristles arising from the interstices.
Thus the under surface of the tail is very rough, and may probably
be of use to the animal in climbing." He also refers to the fact that
the claws of his specimen are not retractile, and mentions that in
the original description both in Latin and English the
retractability of the claws is pointed out as a distinction between
_Gymnura_ and _Tupaia_. In the description given of the Sumatran
animal both by Dallas and Cuvier nothing is mentioned about this
feature.

SIZE.--A Sumatran specimen: head and body, 14 inches; tail, 12 inches.
Mr. Blanford's specimen: head and body, 12 inches; tail, 8.5.

Mr. Blanford was informed by Mr. Davison, who obtained it in Burmah,
that the _Gymnura_ is purely nocturnal in its habits, and lives under
the roots of trees. It has a peculiar and most offensive smell,
resembling decomposed cooked vegetables. The Bulau has not the power
of rolling itself up like the hedgehog, nor have the similar forms
of insectivores which resemble the hedgehog in some respects, such
as the Tenrecs (_Centetes_), Tendracs (_Ericulus_), and Sokinahs
(_Echinops_) of Madagascar.


CARNIVORA.

Speaking generally, the whole range of mammals between the
_Quadrumana_ and the _Rodentia_ are _carnivorous_ with few
exceptions, yet there is one family which, from its muscular
development and dentition, is pre-eminently flesh-eating, as Cuvier
aptly remarks, "the sanguinary appetite is combined with the force
necessary for its gratification." Their forms are agile and
muscular; their circulation and respiration rapid. As Professor
Kitchen Parker graphically writes: "This group, which comprises all
the great beasts of prey, is one of the most compact as well as the
most interesting among the mammalia. So many of the animals contained
in it have become 'familiar in our mouths as household words,'
bearing as they do an important part in fable, in travel, and even
in history; so many of them are of such wonderful beauty, so many
of such terrible ferocity, that no one can fail to be interested in
them, even apart from the fact likely to influence us more in their
favour than any other, that the two home pets, which of all others
are the commonest and the most interesting, belong to the group. No
one who has had a dog friend, no one who has watched the wonderful
instance of maternal love afforded by a cat with her kittens, no one
who loves riding across country after a fox, no lady with a taste
for handsome furs, no boy who has read of lion and tiger hunts and
has longed to emulate the doughty deeds of the hunter, can fail to
be interested in an assemblage which furnishes animals at once so
useful, so beautiful and so destructive. It must not be supposed from
the name of this group that all its members are exclusively
flesh-eaters, and indeed it will be hardly necessary to warn the
reader against falling into this mistake, as there are few people
who have never given a dog a biscuit, or a bear a bun. Still both
the dog and several kinds of bears prefer flesh-meat when they can
get it, but there are some bears which live almost exclusively on
fruit, and are, therefore, in strictness not carnivorous at all. The
name must, however, be taken as a sort of general title for a certain
set of animals which have certain characteristics in common, and
which differ from all other animals in particular ways." I would I
had more space at my disposal for further quotations from Professor
Parker's 'General Remarks on the Land Carnivora,' his style is so
graphic.

The dentition of the Carnivora varies according to the exclusiveness
of their fleshy diet, and the nature of that diet.

In taking two typical forms I give below sketches from skulls in my
possession of the tiger, and the common Indian black bear; the one
has trenchant cutting teeth which work up and down, the edges sliding
past each other just like a pair of scissors; the other has flat
crowned molars adapted for triturating the roots and herbage on which
it feeds. A skull of an old bear which I have has molars of which
the crowns are worn almost smooth from attrition. In the most
carnivorous forms the tubercular molars are almost rudimentary.

[Figure: Dentition of Tiger and Indian Black Bear]

The skull exhibits peculiar features for the attachment of the
necessary powerful muscles. The bones of the face are short in
comparison with the _cranial_ portion of the skull (the reverse of
the _Herbivores_); the strongly built zygomatic arch, the roughened
ridges and the broad ascending ramus of the lower jaw, all afford
place for the attachment of the immense muscular development. Then
the hinge of the jaw is peculiar; it allows of no lateral motion,
as in the ruminants; the _condyle_, or hinge-bolt of a tiger's jaw
(taken from the largest in my collection), measures two inches, and
as this fits accurately into its corresponding (glenoid) cavity,
there can be no side motion, but a vertical chopping one only. The
skeleton of a typical carnivore is the perfection of strength and
suppleness. The tissue of the bones is dense and white; the head small
and beautifully articulated; the spine flexible yet strong. In those
which show the greatest activity, such as the cats, civets and dogs,
the spinous processes, especially in the lumbar region, are greatly
developed--more so than in the bears. These serve for the attachment
of the powerful muscles of the neck and back. The clavicle or
collar-bone is wanting, or but rudimentary. The stomach is simple;
the intestinal canal short; liver lobed; organs of sight, hearing,
and smell much developed.

Now we come to the divisions into which this group has been separated
by naturalists. I shall not attempt to describe the various systems,
but take the one which appears to me the simplest and best to fit
in with Cuvier's general arrangement, which I have followed. Modern
zoologists have divided the family into two great groups--the
_Fissipedia_ (split-feet) or land Carnivora, and the _Pinnipedia_
(fin-feet) or water Carnivora. Of the land Carnivora some
naturalists have made the following three groups on the
characteristics of the feet, _viz_., _Plantigrada_, _Sub-plantigrada_
and _Digitigrada_. The dogs and cats, it is well known, walk on their
toes--they are the _Digitigrada_; the bears and allied forms on the
palms of their hands and soles of their feet, more or less, and thus
form the other two divisions, but there is another classification
which recommends itself by its simplicity and accuracy. Broadly
speaking, there are three types of land carnivores--the cat, the dog,
and the bear, which have been scientifically named _AEluroidea_ (from
the Greek _ailouros_, a cat); _Cynoidea_ (from _kuon_, a dog); and
_Arctoidea_ (from _arctos_, a bear). The distinction is greater
between the families of _Digitigrades_, the cat and dog, than between
the _Plantigrades_ and _Sub-plantigrades_, and therefore I propose to
adopt the following arrangement:--

I. ARCTOIDEA |_Plantigrades_.
|_Sub-plantigrades_.

II. AELUROIDEA |
|_Digitigrades_.
III. CYNOIDEA |

I may here remark that the Insectivora are in most cases plantigrade,
therefore the term is not an apposite one as applied to the bear and
bear-like animals only, but in treating of them under the term
_Arctoidea_ we may divide them again into _Plantigrades_ and
_Sub-plantigrades_.


ARCTOIDEA.


PLANTIGRADA.


_URSIDAE_.

The bears differ from the dogs and cats widely in form and manner,
and diet. The cat has a light springy action, treading on the tips
of its toes, a well-knit body glistening in a silky coat, often richly
variegated, "a clean cut," rounded face, with beautifully chiselled
nostrils and thin lips, and lives exclusively on flesh. The bear
shambles along with an awkward gait, placing the entire sole of his
foot on the ground; he has rough dingy fur, a snout like a pig's,
and is chiefly a vegetarian--and in respect to this last peculiarity
his dentition is modified considerably: the incisors are large,
tri-cuspidate; the canines somewhat smaller than in the restricted
carnivora; these are followed by three small teeth, which usually
fall out at an early period, then comes a permanent premolar of
considerable size, succeeded by two molars in the upper, and three
in the under jaw. The dental formula is therefore: Inc., 3--3/3--3;
can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 4--4/4--4; molars, 2--2/3--3. In actual
numbers this formula agrees with that for the dogs; but the form of
the teeth is very different, inasmuch as the large premolars and the
molars have flat tuberculated crowns, constituting them true
grinders, instead of the trenchant shape of the cats, which is also,
to a modified extent, possessed by the dogs, of which the last two
molars have, instead of cutting edges, a grinding surface with four
cusps. The trenchant character is entirely lost in the bear, even
in the carnivorous species which exhibit no material difference in
the teeth, any more than, as I mentioned at the commencement of this
work, do the teeth of the human race, be they as carnivorous as the
Esquimaux, or vegetarian as the Hindu.

[Figure: Dentition of Bear.]

[Figure: Skull of Bear (under view).]

There is also another peculiarity in the bear's skull as compared
with the cat's. In the latter there is a considerable bulging below
the aperture of the ear called the _bulla tympani_, or bulb of the
drum. This is almost wanting in the bear, and it would be interesting
to know whether this much affects its hearing. I myself am of opinion
that bears are not acute in this sense, but then my experience has
been with the common Indian _Ursus_, or _Melursus labiatus_ only,
and the skulls of this species in my possession strongly exhibit this
peculiarity.[6] The cylindrical bones resemble those of man nearer
than any other animal, the _femur_ especially; and a skinned bear
has a most absurd resemblance to a robust human being. The sole of
the hind foot leaves a mark not unlike that of a human print.

[Footnote 6: On referring to Mr. Sanderson's interesting book,
'Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India,' and General
Shakespear's 'Wild Sports,' I find that both those authors
corroborate my assertion that the sloth bear is deficient in the
sense of hearing. Captain Baldwin, however, thinks otherwise; but
the evidence seems to be against him in this respect.]

The Brown Bear of Europe (_Ursus arctos_) is the type of the family,
and has been known from the earliest ages--I may say safely
prehistoric ages, for its bones have been frequently found in
post-pliocene formations along with those of other animals of which
some are extinct. An extinct species of bear, _Ursus spelaeus_,
commonly called the Cave Bear, seems to have been the ancestor of
the Brown Bear which still is found in various parts of Europe, and
is said to have been found within historic times in Great Britain.

The bear of which we have the oldest record is almost the same as
our Indian Brown or Snow Bear. Our bear (_U. Isabellinus_) is but
a variety of _U. Syriacus_, which was the one slain by David, and
is spoken of in various parts of the Bible. It is the nearest approach
we have to the European _U. arctos_.


NO. 163. URSUS ISABELLINUS.
_The Himalayan Brown Bear_ (_Jerdon's No. 89_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Barf-ka-rich_ or _Bhalu_, Hind.; _Harput_, Kashmiri;
_Drin-mor_, Ladakhi.

[Figure: _URSUS ISABELLINUS_.]

DESCRIPTION.--A yellowish-brown colour, varying somewhat according
to sex and time of year. Jerdon says: "In winter and spring the fur
is long and shaggy, in some inclining to silvery grey, in others to
reddish brown; the hair is thinner and darker in summer as the season
advances, and in autumn the under fur has mostly disappeared, and
a white collar on the chest is then very apparent. The cubs show this
collar distinctly. The females are said to be lighter in colour than
the males."

Gray does not agree in the theory that _Ursus Syriacus_ is the same
as this species; in external appearance he says it is the same, but
there are differences in the skull; the nose is broader, and the
depression in the forehead less. The zygomatic arch is wider and
stronger; the lower jaw stronger and higher, and the upper tubercular
grinders shorter and thicker than in _Ursus Isabellinus_.

"It is found," Jerdon says, "only on the Himalayas and at great
elevations in summer close to the snow. In autumn they descend lower,
coming into the forests to feed on various fruits, seeds, acorns,
hips of rose-bushes, &c., and often coming close to villages to
plunder apples, walnuts, apricots, buckwheat, &c. Their usual food
in spring and summer is grass and roots. They also feed on various
insects, and are seen turning over stones to look for scorpions (it
is said) and insects that harbour in such places. In winter they
retreat to caves, remaining in a state of semi-torpidity, issuing
forth in March and April. Occasionally they are said to kill sheep
or goats, often wantonly, apparently, as they do not feed upon them.
They litter in April and May, the female having generally two cubs.
This bear does not climb trees well."

* * * * *

The next three species belong to the group of Sun Bears; _Helarctos_
of some authors.


NO. 164. URSUS (HELARCTOS) TORQUATUS _vel_ TIBETANUS.
_The Himalayan Black Bear_ (_Jerdon's No. 90_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Bhalu_, Hind.; _Thom_, Bhot.; _Sona_, Lepcha.

HABITAT.--The Himalayas, Nepal, Assam, Eastern Siberia, and China.

[Figure: _URSUS TIBETANUS_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Entirely black, with the exception of a broad white
V-shaped mark on the chest and a white chin. Neck thick, head
flattened; ears large; claws very long and curved; fur short; body
and head more slender than the preceding species.

Jerdon remarks that the specific name of this bear is unfortunate,
since it is rare in Thibet. However the more appropriate specific
name _torquatus_ is now more generally adopted. It seems to be common
in all the Himalayan ranges, where it is to be found from 5000 to
12,000 feet. Jerdon says it lives chiefly on fruit and roots,
apricots, walnuts, apples, currants, &c., and also on various grains,
barley, Indian corn, buckwheat, &c., and in winter on acorns,
climbing the oak trees and breaking down the branches. They are not
afraid of venturing near villages, and destroy not only garden stuff,
but--being, like all bears, fond of honey--pull down the hives
attached to the cottages of the hill people. "Now and then they will
kill sheep, goats, &c., and are said occasionally to eat flesh. This
bear has bad eyesight, but great power of smell, and if approached
from windward is sure to take alarm. A wounded bear will sometimes
show fight, but in general it tries to escape. It is said sometimes
to coil itself into the form of a ball, and thus roll down steep hills
if frightened or wounded." If cornered it attacks savagely, as all
bears will, and the face generally suffers, according to Jerdon; but
I have noticed this with the common Indian Sloth Bear, several of
the men wounded in my district had their scalps torn. He says: "It
has been noticed that if caught in a noose or snare, if they cannot
break it by force they never have the intelligence to bite the rope
in two, but remain till they die or are killed." In captivity this
bear, if taken young, is very quiet, but is not so docile as the
Malayan species.[7]

[Footnote 7: Since writing the above, the following letter appeared
in _The Asian_ of May 11, 1880:--

"THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR.

"SIR,--Mr. Sterndale, in the course of his interesting papers on the
Mammalia of British India, remarks of _Ursus Tibetanus_, commonly
known as the Himalayan Black Bear, that 'a wounded one will sometimes
show fight, but in general it tries to escape.' This description is
not, I think, quite correct. As it would lead one to suppose that
this bear is not more savage than any other wild animal--the nature
of most of the _ferae_ being to try to escape when wounded, _unless_
they see the hunter who has fired at them, when many will charge at
once, and desperately. The Himalayan Black Bear will not only do this
_almost invariably_, but often attacks men without any provocation
whatever, and is altogether about the most fierce, vicious,
dangerous brute to be met with either in the hills or plains of India.
They inflict the most horrible wounds, chiefly with their paws, and
generally--as Mr. Sterndale states--on the face and head. I have
repeatedly met natives in the interior frightfully mutilated by
encounters with the Black Bear, and cases in which Europeans have
been killed by them are by no means uncommon. These brutes are totally
different in their dispositions to the Brown Bear (_Ursus
Isabellinus_), which, however desperately wounded, will never
charge. I believe there is no case on record of a hunter being charged
by a Brown Bear; or even of natives, under any circumstances, being
attacked by one; whereas every one of your readers who has ever
marched in the Himalayas must have come across many victims of the
ferocity of _Ursus Tibetanus_. As I said before, this brute often,
unwounded, attacks man without any provocation whatever. Two cases
that I know of myself may not be without interest. An officer shooting
near my camp was stalking some thar. He was getting close to them,
when a Black Bear rushed out at him from behind a large rock on his
right and above him. He was so intent on the thar, and the brute's
rush was so sudden, that he had barely time to pull from the hip,
but he was fortunate enough to kill the animal almost at his feet.
I heard this from him on the morning after it happened. On another
occasion, I was shooting in Chumba with a friend. One evening he
encamped at a village, about which there was, as usual, a little
cultivation on terraces, and a good many apricot-trees. Lower down
the khud there was dense jungle. The villagers told us that a Black
Bear had lately been regularly visiting these trees, and generally
came out about dusk, so that if we would go down and wait, we should
be pretty sure of a shot. We went, and took up positions behind trees,
about 200 yards apart, each of us having a man from the village with
us. Intervening jungle prevented us from seeing each other. I had
not been at my post more than ten minutes when I was startled by loud
shrieks and cries from the direction of my companion. No shot was
fired, and the coolie with me said that the bear had killed some one.
In less than a minute I had reached the spot where I had left my friend.
He, and the man with him, had disappeared; but, guided by the shrieks,
which still continued, I made my way into the thick cover in front
of his post, and about fifty yards inside it, much to my relief, came
upon him, rifle in hand, standing over the dead body of a man, over
which two people--the coolie that had been with my friend and an old
woman--were weeping, and shrieking loudly, 'Look out!' said he, as
I came up, 'the bear has just killed this fellow!' The first thing
to be done was to carry him out into the open. I helped to do this,
and directly I touched him I felt that he was stone cold, and a further
examination showed he must have been dead some hours. That he had
been killed by a bear was also very evident. He was naked to the waist,
and had been cutting grass. His bundle lay by him, and the long curved
kind of sickle that the hillmen used to cut grass with was stuck in
his girdle, showing that he had not had time to draw it to strike
one blow in his defence. The mark of the bear's paw on his left side
was quite distinct. This had felled him to the ground, and then the
savage brute had given him one bite--no more, but that one had
demolished almost the whole of the back of his head, and death must
have been instantaneous. The man had apparently cut his load of grass,
and was returning with it to the village, when he disturbed the bear,
which attacked him at once. The old woman was his mother, and the
coolie with J---- some relation. Her son having been away all day,
I suppose the old woman had gone to look for him. She found his body,
as described, just below J----'s post, and at once set up a
lamentation which brought the coolie, J----'s attendant, down to her,
and J---- following himself, thought at first that the man had been
killed then and there. There was such a row kicked up that no bear
came near the apricots that night, and the next day we had to march,
as our leave was up. I have heard of many other cases of the Black
Bear attacking without any provocation, and from what I know of the
brute I quite believe them; and, after all, the animal is not worth
shooting. Their skins are always poor and mangy, and generally so
_greasy_ that they are very difficult to keep until you can make them
over to the dresser. The skin of the Snow or Brown Bear, on the other
hand, particularly if shot early in the season, is a splendid trophy,
and forms a most beautiful and luxurious rug, the fur being extremely
soft, and several inches in depth.

"SPINDRIFT."]

In _The Asian_ of January 7th, 1879, page 68, a correspondent ("N.
F. T. T.") writes that he obtained a specimen of this bear which was
coal black throughout, with the exception of a dark dirty yellow on
the lower lip, but of the usual crescentic white mark she had not
a trace. This exceptional specimen was shot in Kumaon. Robinson, in
his 'Account of Assam,' states that these bears are numerous there,
and in some places accidents caused by them are not unfrequent.

All the Sun Bears are distinguished for their eccentric antics,
conspicuous among which is the gift of walking about on their hind
legs in a singularly human fashion. Those in the London Zoological
Gardens invariably attract a crowd. They struggle together in a
playful way, standing on their hind legs to wrestle. They fall and
roll, and bite and hug most absurdly.

Captain J. H. Baldwin, in his 'Large and Small Game of Bengal,' puts
this bear down as not only carnivorous, but a foul feeder. He says:
"On my first visit to the hills I very soon learnt that this bear
was a flesh-eater, so far as regards a sheep, goats, &c., but I could
hardly believe that he would make a repast on such abominations (i.e.
carrion), though the paharies repeatedly informed me that such was
the case. One day, however, I saw a bear busy making a meal off a
bullock that had died of disease, and had been thrown into the bed
of a stream." In another page Captain Baldwin states that the
Himalayan Bear is a good swimmer; he noticed one crossing the River
Pindur in the flood, when, as he remarks, "no human being, however
strong a swimmer, could have stemmed such a roaring rapid."


NO. 165. URSUS (HELARCTOS) GEDROSIANUS.
_Baluchistan Bear_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Mamh_.

HABITAT.--Baluchistan.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur ranging from brown to brownish-black, otherwise
as in last species.

This is a new species, brought to notice by Mr. W. T. Blanford, and
named by him. The skull of the first specimen procured was scarcely
distinguishable from that of a female of _Ursus torquatus_, and he
was for a time apparently in doubt as to the distinctness of the
species, taking the brown skin as merely a variety; but a
subsequently received skull of an adult male seems to prove that it
is a much smaller animal.


NO. 166. URSUS (HELARCTOS) MALAYANUS.
_The Bruang or Malayan Sun Bear_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Wet-woon_, Arracan.

HABITAT.--Burmah, Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands.

[Figure: _Ursus Malayanus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Smaller than _U. torquatus_, not exceeding four and
a half feet in length. Fur black, brownish on the nose; the chest
marked with a white crescent, or, in the Bornean variety, an
orange-coloured heart-shaped patch; the claws are remarkably long;
mouth and lower jaw dirty white; the lower part of the crescent
prolonged in a narrow white streak down to the belly, where it is
widened out into a large irregular spot. Marsden, in his 'History
of Sumatra,' published towards the end of the last century, speaks
of this bear under the name of _Bruang_ (query: is our _Bruin_ derived
from this?), and mentions its habit of climbing the cocoa-nut trees
to devour the tender part, or cabbage.

It is more tamable and docile than the Himalayan Sun Bear, and is
even more eccentric in its ways. The one in the London "Zoo," when
given a biscuit, lies down on its back, and passes it about from fore
to hind paws, eyeing it affectionately, and making most comical
noises as it rolls about. Sir Stamford Raffles writes of one which
was in his possession for two years:--"He was brought up in the
nursery with the children; and when admitted to my table, as was
frequently the case, gave a proof of his taste by refusing to eat
any fruit but mangosteens, or to drink any wine but champagne. The
only time I ever knew him out of humour was on an occasion when no
champagne was forthcoming. He was naturally of a playful and
affectionate disposition, and it was never found necessary to chain
or chastise him. It was usual for this bear, the cat, the dog, and
a small blue mountain bird, or lory, of New Holland, to mess together
and eat out of the same dish. His favourite playfellow was the dog,
whose teasing and worrying was always borne, and returned with the
utmost good humour and playfulness. As he grew up he became a very
powerful animal, and in his rambles in the garden he would lay hold
of the largest plantains, the stems of which he could scarcely
embrace, and tear them up by the roots." The late General A. C.
McMaster gives an equally amusing account of his pet of this species
which was obtained in Burmah. "Ada," he writes, "is never out of
temper, and always ready to play with any one. While she was with
me, 'Ada' would not eat meat in any shape; but I was told by one of
the ship's officers that another of the same species, 'Ethel' (also
presented by me to the Committee of the People's Park of Madras, and
by them sent to England), while coming over from Burmah killed and
devoured a large fowl put into her cage. I do not doubt the _killing_,
for at that time 'Ethel' had not long been caught, and was a little
demon in temper, but I suspect that, while attention was taken off,
some knowing lascar secured the body of the chicken, and gave her
credit for having swallowed it. 'Ada's' greatest delight was in
getting up small trees; even when she was a chubby infant I could,
by merely striking the bark, or a branch some feet above her head,
cause her to scramble up almost any tree. At this time poor 'Ada,'
a Burman otter, and a large white poodle were, like many human beings
of different tastes or pursuits, very fast friends." In another part
he mentions having heard of a bear of this species who delighted in
cherry brandy, "and on one occasion, having been indulged with an
entire bottle of this insinuating beverage, got so completely
intoxicated that it stole a bottle of blacking, and drank off the
contents under the impression that they were some more of its
favourite liquor. The owner of the bear told me that he saw it
suffering from this strange mixture, and evidently with, as may
easily be imagined, a terrible headache."

So much for the amusing side of the picture, now for the other.

Although strictly frugivorous, still it has been known to attack and
devour man in cases of the greatest want, and it also occasionally
devours small animals and birds, in the pursuit of which, according
to Dr. Sal Muller, it prefers those that live on a vegetable diet.
The Rev. Mr. Mason, in his writings about Burmah, says "they will
occasionally attack man when alone;" he instances a bear upsetting
two men on a raft, and he goes on to add that "last year a Karen of
my acquaintance in Tonghoo was attacked by one, overcome, and left
by the bear for dead." In this case there was no attempt to devour,
and it may have been, as I have often observed with the Indian Sloth
Bear, that such attacks are made by females with young.

Dr. Sal Muller states: "in his native forests this bear displays much
zeal and ingenuity in discovering the nests of bees, and in
extracting their contents by means of his teeth from the narrow
orifices of the branches of the trees in which they are concealed."

* * * * *

The next species constitutes the genus _Melursus_ of Meyer or
_Prochilus_ of Illiger. It is an awkward-shaped beast, from which
it probably derives its name of "Sloth Bear," for it is not like the
sloth in other respects. It has long shaggy hair, large curved claws
(which is certainly another point of resemblance to the sloth), and
a very much elongated mobile snout. Another peculiarity is in its
dentition; instead of six incisors in the upper jaw it has only four.

Blyth, in his later writings, adopts Illiger's generic name
_Prochilus_.


NO. 167. URSUS (MELURSUS) LABIATUS.
_The Common Indian Sloth Bear_.

NATIVE NAMES.--_Bhalu_, Hind.; _Reench_, Hind.; _Riksha_, Sanscrit;
_Aswail_, Mahr.; _Elugu_, Tel.; _Kaddi_ or _Karadi_, Can.; _Yerid_
or _Asol_ of the Gonds; _Banna_ of the Coles.

HABITAT.--All over the peninsula of India. Blyth says it is not found
in Burmah.

[Figure: _Ursus labiatus_.]

DESCRIPTION.--General shape of the ursine type, but more than
usually ungainly and awkward. Hair very long and shaggy, all black,
with the exception of a white V-shaped mark on the chest, and dirty
whitish muzzle and tips to its feet; snout prolonged and flexible;
claws very large.

SIZE.--A large animal of this species will measure from five to six
feet in length, and stand nearly three feet high, weighing from
fifteen to twenty stones.

Our old friend is so well known that he hardly requires description,
and the very thought of him brings back many a ludicrous and exciting
scene of one's jungle days. There is frequently an element of
comicality in most bear-hunts, as well as a considerable spice of
danger; for, though some people may pooh-pooh this, I know that a
she-bear with cubs is no despicable antagonist. Otherwise the male
is more anxious to get away than to provoke an attack.

This bear does not hibernate at all, but is active all the year round.
In the hot weather it lies all day in cool caves, emerging only at
night. In March and April, when the _mohwa_-tree is in flower, it
revels in the luscious petals that fall from the trees, even
ascending the branches to shake down the coveted blossoms. The
_mohwa_ (_Bassia latifolia_) well merits a slight digression from
our subject. It is a large-sized umbrageous tree, with oblong leaves
from four to eight inches long, and two to four inches broad. The
flowers are globular, cream coloured, with a faint greenish tint,
waxy in appearance, succulent and extremely sweet, but to my taste
extremely nasty, there being a peculiar disagreeable flavour which
lingers long in the mouth. However not only do all animals,
carnivorous as well as herbivorous, like them, but they are highly
appreciated by the natives, who not only eat them raw, but dry them
in the sun and thus keep them for future consumption, and also distil
an extremely intoxicating spirit from them. The fresh refuse, or
_marc_, after the extraction of the spirit is also attractive to
animals. Some years ago I sent to Mr. Frank Buckland, for publication
in _Land and Water_, an account of a dog which used to frequent a
distillery for the purpose of indulging in this refuse, the result
of which was his becoming completely intoxicated. This _marc_, after
further fermentation, becomes intensely acid, and on one occasion
I used it successfully in cleaning and brightening a massive steel
and iron gate which I had constructed. I made a large vat, and filling
it with this fermented refuse, put the gate in to pickle. The seeds
of the _mohwa_ yield an oil much prized by the natives, and used
occasionally for adulterating _ghee_. The wood is not much used; it
is not of sufficient value to compensate for the flower and fruit,
consequently the tree is seldom cut down. When an old one falls the
trunk and large limbs are sometimes used for sluices in tanks, for
the heart wood is generally rotten and hollow, and it stands well
under water. If you ask a Gond about the _mohwa_ he will tell you
it is his father and mother. His fleshly father and mother die and
disappear, but the _mohwa_ is with him for ever! A good _mohwa_ crop
is therefore always anxiously looked for, and the possession of trees
coveted; in fact a large number of these trees is an important item
for consideration in the assessment of land revenues. No wonder then
that the villager looks with disfavour on the prowling bear who
nightly gathers up the fallen harvest, or who shakes down the
long-prayed-for crop from the laden boughs.

The Sloth Bear is also partial to mangos, sugar-cane, and the pods
of the _amaltas_ or _cassia_(_Cathartocarpus fistula_), and the
fruit of the jack-tree (_Artocarpus integrifolia_).

It is extremely fond of honey, and never passes an ant-hill without
digging up its contents, especially those of white ants. About twenty
years ago my first experience of this was in a neighbour's garden.
He had recently built himself a house, and was laying out and sowing
his flower-beds with great care. It so happened that one of the beds
lay over a large ants' nest, and to his dismay he found one morning
a huge pit dug in the centre of it, to the total destruction of all
his tender annuals, by a bear that had wandered through the station
during the night. Tickell describes the operation thus: "On arriving
at an ant-hill the bear scrapes away with the fore-feet till he
reaches the large combs at the bottom of the galleries. He then with
violent puffs dissipates the dust and crumbled particles of the nest,
and sucks out the inhabitants of the comb by such forcible
inhalations as to be heard at two hundred yards distant or more. Large
larvae are in this way sucked out from great depths under the soil."

Insects of all sorts seem not to come amiss to this animal, which
systematically hunts for them, turning over stones in the operation.

The Sloth Bear has usually two young ones at a birth. They are born
blind, and continue so till about the end of the third week. The
mother is a most affectionate parent, defending her offspring with
the greatest ferocity. A she-bear with cubs is always an awkward
customer, and she continues her solicitude for them till they are
nearly full grown. The young ones are not difficult to rear if
ordinary care be taken. The great mistake that most people make in
feeding the young of wild animals is the giving of pure cows' milk.
I mentioned this in 'Seonee' in speaking of a bear:--

"The little brute was as savage as his elders, and would do nothing
but walk to the end of the string by which he was attached to a tent
peg, roll head over heels, and walk in a contrary direction, when
a similar somersault would be performed; and he whined and wailed
just like a child; one might have mistaken it for the puling of some
villager's brat. Milford was going to give it pure cows' milk when
Fordham advised him not to do so, but to mix it with one half the
quantity of water. 'The great mistake people make,' he said, 'who
try to rear wild animals, is to give them what they think is best
for them, viz., good fresh cows' milk, and they wonder that the little
creatures pine away and die, instead of flourishing on it. Cows' milk
is too rich; buffalos' milk is better, but both should be mixed with
water. It does not matter what the animal is: tiger-cub, fawn, or
baby monkey--all require the same caution.'"

I had considerable experience in the bringing up of young things of
all sorts when in the Seonee district, and only after some time learnt
the proper proportions of milk and water, and also that regularity
in feeding was necessary--two-thirds water to one of milk for the
first month; after that half and half.

The Sloth Bear carries her cubs on her back, as do the opossums, and
a singular little animal called the koala (_Phascolarctos
cinereus_)--and she seems to do this for some time, as Mr. Sanderson
writes he shot one which was carrying a cub as large as a sheep-dog.

In that most charming of all sporting books ever written, Campbell's
'Old Forest Ranger,' there is an amusingly-told bit with reference
to this habit of cub-carrying which I am sure my readers will forgive
me for extracting. Old Dr. Jock M'Phee had been knocked over by a
she-bear, and is relating his grievances to Charles:--

"Well, as I was saying, I was sitting at my pass, and thinking o'
my old sweethearts, and the like o' that, when a' at ance I heard
a terrible stramash among the bushes, and then a wild growl, just
at my very lug. Up I jumps wi' the fusee in my hand, and my heart
in my mouth, and out came a muckle brute o' a bear, wi' that wee towsie
tyke sitting on her back, as conciety as you please, and haudin' the
grip like grim death wi' his claws. The auld bear, as soon as she
seed me, she up wi' her birse, and shows her muckle white teeth, and
grins at me like a perfect cannibal; and the wee deevil he sets up
his birse too, and snaps his bit teeth, and tries to grin like the
mither o't, with a queer auld farrant look that amaist gart me laugh;
although, to tell the blessed truth, Maister Charles, I thought it
nae laughing sport. Well, there was naething else for it, so I lets
drive at them wi' the grit-shot, thinking to ding them baith at ance.
I killed the sma' ane dead enough; but the auld one, she lets a roar
that amaist deeved me, and at me she comes like a tiger. I was that
frighted, sir, I did na ken what to do; but in despair I just held
out the muzzle o' the fusee to fend her off, and I believe that saved
my life, for she gripped it atween her teeth, dang me o'er the braid
o' my back, and off she set, trailing me through the bushes like a
tether-stick; for some way or other I never let go the grip I had
o' the stock. I was that stupefied I hae nae recollection what
happened after this, till I found mysel' sticking in the middle o'
a brier-bush, wi' my breeks rived the way you see, and poor old 'Meg'
smashed in bits--de'el be in her skin that did it."

Poor old Jock M'Phee! On the whole he did well to escape with but
injury to his garments. I have seen several men mauled by she-bears;
one of them was scalped and torn to such an extent that it was a long
time before he recovered; and I always marvelled to think he got over
it at all.

The British soldier is rather fond of a bear cub as a pet; and Captain
Baldwin tells an amusing story of one which followed the men on to
the parade ground, and quite disorganised the manoeuvres by
frightening the colonel's horse. In 1858 I was quartered for a time
with a naval brigade; and once, when there was an alarm of the enemy,
Jack went to the front with all his pets, including Bruin, which
brought up the rear, shuffling along in blissful ignorance of the
bubble reputation to be found at the cannon's mouth.

Although as a rule vegetarian, yet this species is not altogether
free from the imputation of being a devourer of flesh when it comes
in its way. In such cases it possibly has been impelled by hunger,
and I doubt whether it ever kills for the sake of eating. I have known
even ruminants eat meat, and in their case hunger could not have been
urged as an excuse. Mr. Sanderson mentions an instance when a Barking
Deer he shot was partially devoured by a bear during the night.

Very few elephants, however steady with tigers, will stand a bear.
Whether it is that bears make such a row when wounded, or whether
there be anything in the smell, I know not, but I have heard many
sportsmen allude to the fact. A favourite elephant I had would stand
anything but a bear and a pig. Few horses will approach a bear, and
this is one difficulty in spearing them; and for this reason I think
bear dancers should be prohibited in towns. Calcutta used to swarm
with them at one time. It always makes me angry when I see these men
going about with the poor brutes, whose teeth and claws are often
drawn, and a cruel ring passed through their sensitive nostrils. I
should like to set an old she-bear after the _bhalu-wallas_, with
a fair field and no favour.

The bear rising to hug its adversary is a fallacy as far as this
species is concerned; it does not squeeze, but uses its claws freely
and with great effect.

* * * * *

I think we have now exhausted our Indian bears. Some have spoken of
a dwarf bear supposed to inhabit the Lower Himalayas, but as yet it
is unknown--possibly it may be the _Ailuropus_. We now come to the
Bear-like animals, the next in order, being the Racoons (_Procyon_),
Coatis (_Nasua_), Kinkajous (_Cercoleptes_), and the Cacomixle
(_Bassaris_) of North and South America, and then our own Panda or
Cat-Bear (_Ailurus fulgens_).

This, with the above-mentioned Racoons, &c., forms a small group of
curious bear-like animals, mostly of small size. Externally they
differ considerably, especially in their long bushy tails, but in
all essential particulars they coincide. They are plantigrade, and
are without a caecum or blind gut; the skull, however it may approach
to a viverrine or feline shape, has still marked arctoid
characteristics. The ear passage is well marked and bony, as in that
of the bear, but the bulb of the drum (_bulla tympani_) is much
developed, as in the dogs and cats. The molars are more tuberculated
than in the bears, resembling the hinder molars of a dog.


AILURIDAE.

F. Cuvier, who received the first specimen of the type of this family
from his son-in-law, M. Duvaucel, was not happy in his selection of
a name, which would lead one to suppose that it was affixed to the
cats instead of the bears. It certainly in some degree resembles the
cat externally, and it has also semi-retractile claws, but in greater
measure it belongs to the Arctoidea. There are only two genera as
yet known--the Red Cat-Bear, _Ailurus fulgens_, and the Thibetan
_Ailuropus melanoleucos_.


_GENUS AILUROPUS_.

This very rare and most curious animal should properly come between
the bears and _Ailurus_, as it seems to form a link between the two.
Such also is the idea of a naturalist friend of mine, who, in writing
to me about it, expressed it as being a link between _Helarctos
Malayanus_ and _Ailurus fulgens_. Very little is, however, known of
the creature, which inhabits the most inaccessible portions of a
little-known country--the province of Moupin in Eastern Thibet. It
was procured there by the Abbe David, who, after a prolonged
residence in China, lived for nearly a year in Moupin, and he sent
specimens of the skull, skin, &c., to M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, from
whose elaborate description in his 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes'
I have extracted the following notice. The original article is too
long to translate _in extenso_, but I have taken the chief points.


NO. 168. AILUROPUS MELANOLEUCOS.

HABITAT.--The hilly parts Moupin, Eastern Thibet.

[Figure: _Ailuropus melanoleucos_.]

DESCRIPTION.--The _Ailuropus_ has a thick-set heavy form. His head
is short, rather slender in front, but extremely enlarged in the
middle and after part; the nose is small and naked at its extremity;
the forehead very large and convex; the eyes are small; the ears short,
wide between and rounded at the ends; neck thick and very strong;
the body is squat and massive; the tail is so short as to be hardly
distinguishable. The feet are short, very large, nearly of the same
length, terminated by five toes very large and with rounded ends,
the general conformation of which recalls in all respects those of
the bears, but of which the lower parts, instead of being completely
placed on the sole in walking and entirely naked or devoid of hair,
are always in great measure raised, and abundantly clad with fur to
almost their full extent.

On the hind feet can be noticed at the base of the toes a transverse
range of five little fleshy pads, and towards the anterior extremity
of the metatarsal region another naked cushion placed transversely;
but between these parts, as well as the posterior two-thirds of the
planta, the hair is as abundant and as long almost as on the upper
part of the foot. In the fore-limbs the disposition is much the same,
though the metacarpal cushion may be larger; and there is another
fleshy pad without hair near the claws.

The _Ailuropus_ is thus an animal not strictly plantigrade, like the
Bears in general, or the same as the Polar Bear, of which the feet,
although placed flat on the earth, are not devoid of hair; but, on
the contrary, the _Ailuropus_ resembles the _Ailurus_, which is
semi-plantigrade, yet hairy under Its soles.

The colouring of the _Ailuropus_ is remarkable: it is white with the
exception of the circumferences of the eyes, the ears, the shoulders,
and the lower part of the neck which are entirely black. These stand
out clearly on a groundwork of slightly yellowish-white; the spots
round the eyes are circular, and give a strange aspect to the animal;
those on the shoulders represent a sort of band placed transversely
across the withers, widening as they descend downwards to lower limbs.
The hinder limbs are also black from the lower part of the thigh down
to the toes, but the haunches, as also the greater part of the tail,
are as white as the back and belly; the colouring is the same in young
and old. The fur is long, thick, and coarse, like that of the bears.

From the general form of the skull it would seem impossible to
determine the family to which this animal belongs. In effect the head
differs considerably from the _Ursidae_ and the _Mustelidae_, and
presents certain resemblances to that of the hyaena; but there are
numerous and important particulars which indicate a special
zoological type, and it is only by an inspection of the dental system
that the natural affinities of the _Ailuropus_ can be determined.

In the upper jaw the incisors are, as usual, in three pairs. They
are remarkable for their oblique direction; the centre ones are small
and a little widened at the base; the second pair are stronger and
dilated towards the cutting edge; the external incisors are also
strong and excavated outside to admit the canines of the lower jaw.
The canines are stout, but short, with a well-marked blunt ridge down
the posterior side, as in the Malayan bears.

The molars are six in number on each side, of which four are premolars,
and two true molars. The first premolar, situated behind, a little
within the line of the canine, is very small, tuberculiform, and a
little compressed laterally. The second is strong and essentially
carnassial; it is compressed laterally and obliquely placed. It is
furnished with three lobes: the first lobe is short, thick, and
obtuse; the second is raised, triangular and with cutting edges; the
third of the size of the first, but more compressed--in short, a
double-fanged tooth. This molar differs considerably from the
corresponding tooth of the bear by its form and relative development,
since in that family it is one-fanged, very low and obtuse. On the
contrary, it approaches to that of the hyaenas and felines. With the
panda (_Ailurus fulgens_) the corresponding premolar is equally
large, double-fanged and trenchant, but the division in lobes is not
so marked.

The third or penultimate molar of the _Ailuropus_ is larger and
thicker than the preceding, divided in five distinct lobes--three
outer ones in a line, and two less projecting ones within.

The last premolar is remarkably large; it is much larger behind than
in front, and its crown is divided into six lobes, of which five are
very strong; the three external ones are much developed and trenchant,
the centre one being the highest and of a triangular shape. Of the
internal lobes, the first one is almost as large as the external ones;
the second is very small, almost hidden in the groove between the
last mentioned; and the third, which is very large, rounded and
placed obliquely inwards in front, and outwards behind. Professor
Milne-Edwards remarks that he knows not amongst the carnivora a
similar example of a tooth so disposed. That of _Ailurus_ shows the
least difference, that is to say it is nearest in structure, having
also six lobes, but more thick-set or depressed.

The true molars are remarkable for their enormous development: the
first is almost square, with blunt rounded cusps, four-fanged, and
presenting a strange mixture of characteristics, in its outward
portion resembling an essentially carnivorous type, and its internal
portion that of molars intended to triturate vegetable substances.
Amongst bears, and especially the Malayan bears, this character is
presented, but in a less striking degree; the panda resembles it more,
with certain restrictions, but the most striking analogy is with the
genus _Hyaenarctos_.

The last molar is peculiar in shape, longer than broad, and is
tuberculous, as in the bears, but it differs in this respect from
the pandas, in which the last molar is almost a repetition of the
preceding one, and its longitudinal diameter is less than its
transverse.

In the lower jaw the first premolar, instead of being small and
tuberculate, as its corresponding tooth in the upper jaw, is large,
double-fanged, trenchant and tri-lobed, resembling, except for size,
the two following ones. The second is not inserted obliquely like
its correspondent in the upper jaw, its axis is in a line with that
of its neighbours; tricuspidate, the middle lobe being the highest.
The third premolar is very large, and agrees with its upper one,
excepting the lobule on the inner border.

The first true molar is longer than broad, and wider in front; the
crown, with five conical tubercles in two groups, separated by a
transverse groove; the next molar is thicker and stouter than the
preceding one, and the last is smaller, and both much resemble those
of the bears, and differ notably from the pandas.

From what M. Milne-Edwards describes, we may briefly epitomise that
the premolarial dentition of the _Ailuropus_ is ailuroid or feline,
and that the true molars are arctoid or ursine.

The skull is remarkable for the elongation of the cranium and the
elevation of the occipital crest, for the shortness of the muzzle,
for the depression of the post-frontal portion, and for the enormous
development of the zygomatic arches. In another part M.
Milne-Edwards remarks that there is no carnivorous animal of which
the zygomatic arches are so developed as in the _Ailuropus_. He
states that it inhabits the most inaccessible mountains of Eastern
Thibet, and it never descends from its retreats to ravage the fields,
as do the Black Bears; therefore it is difficult to obtain. It lives
principally on roots, bamboos and other vegetables; but we may
reasonably suppose from its conformation that it is carnivorous at
times, when opportunity offers, as are some of the bears, and as is
the _Ailurus_. I have dwelt at some length on this animal, though
not a denizen of India proper; but it will be a prize to any of our
border sportsmen who come across it on the confines of Thibet, and
therefore I have deemed it worthy of space.

SIZE.--From muzzle to tail, about four feet ten inches; height about
twenty-six inches.


_GENUS AILURUS_.


NO. 169. AILURUS FULGENS.
_The Red Cat-Bear_ (_Jerdon's No. 92_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Wah_, Nepal; _Wah-donka_, Bhot.; _Sunnam_ or
_Suknam_, Lepch.; _Negalya_, _Ponya_ of the Nepalese (_Jerdon_). In
the Zoological Gardens in London it is called the _Panda_, but I am
unable just now to state the derivation of this name.

HABITAT.--Eastern Himalayas and Eastern Thibet.

[Figure: _Ailurus fulgens_.]

DESCRIPTION.--"Skull ovate; forehead arched; nose short; brain case
ovate, ventricose; the zygomatic arches very large, expanded; crown
bent down behind" (_Gray_). The lower jaw is very massive, and the
ascending ramus unusually large, extending far above the zygomatic
arch, forming almost a right angle with equal arms. Hodgson's
description is: "Ursine arm; feline paw; profoundly cross-hinged,
yet grinding jaw, and purely triturative and almost ruminant molar
of _Ailurus_; tongue smooth; pupil round; feet enveloped in woolly
socks with leporine completeness. It walks like the marten; climbs
and fights with all the four legs at once, like the _Paradoxuri_,
and does not employ its forefeet--like the racoon, coatis, or
bears--in eating."

Jerdon's outward description is: "Above deep ochreous-red; head and
tail paler and somewhat fulvous, displayed on the tail in rings; face,
chin, and ears within white; ears externally, all the lower surface
and the entire limbs and tip of tail jet-black; from the eye to the
gape a broad vertical line of ochreous-red blending with the dark
lower surface; moustache white; muzzle black."

The one at present in the London "Zoo" is thus described: "Rich
red-chestnut in colour on the upper surface, jet black as to the lower
surface, the limbs also black, the snout and inside of ears white;
the tail bushy, reddish-brown in colour and indistinctly ringed."

SIZE.--Head and body 22 inches; tail 16; height about 9; weight about
8 lbs.

Jerdon has epitomised Hodgson's description of the habits of this
animal as follows: "The Wah is a vegetivorous climber, breeding and
feeding chiefly on the ground, and having its retreat in holes and
clefts of rock. It eats fruits, roots, sprouts of bamboo, acorns,
&c.; also, it is said, eggs and young birds; also milk and ghee, which
it is said to purloin occasionally from the villages. They feed
morning and evening, and sleep much in the day. They are excellent
climbers, but on the ground move rather awkwardly and slowly. Their
senses all appear somewhat blunt, and they are easily captured. In
captivity they are placid and inoffensive, docile and silent, and
shortly after being taken may be suffered to go abroad. They prefer
rice and milk to all other food, refusing animal food, and they are
free from all offensive odour. They drink by lapping with the tongue,
spit like cats when angered, and now and then utter a short deep grunt
like a young bear. The female brings forth two young in spring. They
usually sleep on the side, and rolled into a ball, the head concealed
by the bushy tail." (For the full account see 'Jour. As. Soc. Beng.'
vol. xvi. p. 1113.)

Mr. Bartlett, who has studied the habits of the specimen in the London
Gardens, says that in drinking it sucks up the fluids like a bear
instead of licking it up like a dog or cat, which disagrees with what
Hodgson states above. "When offended it would rush at Mr. Bartlett,
and strike at him with both feet, the body being raised like a bear's,
and the claws projecting."

General Hardwicke was the first to discover this animal, which he
described in a paper read before the Linnaean Society on the 6th of
November 1821, but it was not published for some years, and in the
meanwhile M. Duvaucel sent one to M. F. Cuvier, who introduced it
first to the world. Some years ago I had a beautiful skin of one
offered to me for sale at Darjeeling by some Bhotias, but as it was
redolent of musk and other abominations quite foreign to its innocent
inodorous self, I declined to give the high price wanted for it.


SEMI-PLANTIGRADES.

These form part of the Plantigrada of Cuvier and part of the
Digitigrada; they walk on their toes, but at the same time keep the
wrist and heel much nearer to the ground than do the true Digitigrades,
and sometimes rest on them. Of those Semi-plantigrades with which
we now have to deal there are three sections, viz., the _Mustelidae_,
containing the Gluttons, Martens, Weasels, Ferrets, Grisons, &c.,
the _Melidae_, _Melididae_ and _Melinidae_ of various authors: i.e.
Badgers, Ratels, and Skunks; and the _Lutridae_ or Otters. Some
writers bring them all under one great family, _Mustelidae_, but the
above tripartite arrangement is, I think, better for ordinary
purposes. To the mind of only moderate scientific attainments, a
distinct classification of well-defined groups is always an easier
matter than a large family split up into many genera defined by
internal anatomical peculiarities.

Of the Semi-plantigrades at large Jerdon remarks: "None of them have
more than one true molar above and another below, which, however,
vary much in development, and the flesh tooth is most marked in those
in which the tuberculate is least developed, and _vice versa_. The
great and small intestines differ little in calibre, and many of them
(i.e. the family) can diffuse at will a disgusting stench." This last
peculiarity is a specialty of the American members of the family,
notably the skunk, of the power of which almost incredible stories
are told. I remember reading not long ago an account of a train
passing over a skunk, and for a time the majority of the passengers
suffered from nausea in consequence. Sir John Richardson writes: "I
have known a dead skunk thrown over the stockades of a trading port
produce instant nausea in several women in a house with closed doors,
upwards of a hundred yards distant." The secretion is intensely
inflammatory if squirted in the eye.


MELIDIDAE; OR, BADGER-LIKE ANIMALS.

This group is distinguished by a heavier form, stouter limbs, coarse
hair, and slower action; in most the claws are adapted for burrowing.
None of them are arboreal, although in olden times marvellous tales
were told of the wolverene or glutton as being in the habit of
dropping down from branches of trees on the backs of large animals,
clinging on to them and draining their life blood as they fled. Some
of them are capable of emitting a noisome smell. The teledu of Java
(_Mydaus meliceps_) is the worst of the family in this respect, and
almost equals the skunk. It is possible that this animal may be found
in Tenasserim.


_GENUS ARCTONYX_.

Dentition much the same as that of the Badger (_Meles_). Incisors,
6/6; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars, 3--3/3--3; molars, 1--1/1--1. The
incisors are disposed in a regular curve, vertical in the upper jaw,
obliquely inclined in the lower; canines strong, grinders
compressed; general form of the badger, but stouter. Feet five-toed,
with strong claws adapted for digging, that of the index finger being
larger than the other.


NO. 170. ARCTONYX COLLARIS.
_The Hog-Badger_ (_Jerdon's No. 93_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Balu-suar_, Hind., Sand-pig, or, as Jerdon has it,
_Bhalu-soor_, Hind., i.e. Bear-pig; _Khway-too-wet-too_,
Arakanese.

HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Assam, Sylhet, Arakan, extending, as Dr.
Anderson has observed, to Western Yunnan. The late General A. C.
McMaster found it in Shway Gheen On the Sitang river in Pegu. I heard
of it in the forests of Seonee in the Central Provinces, but I never
came across one.

[Figure: _Arctonyx collaris_.]

DESCRIPTION.--"Hair of the body rough, bristly, and straggling; that
of the head shorter, and more closely adpressed. Head, throat, and
breast yellowish white; on the upper part this colour forms a broad
regularly-defined band from the snout to the occiput; ears of the
same colour; the nape of the neck, a narrow band across the breast,
the anterior portion of the abdomen, the extremities, a band arising
from the middle of the upper lip, gradually wider posteriorly,
including the eyes and ears, and another somewhat narrower arising
from the lower lip, passing the cheek, uniting with the former on
the neck, are deep blackish-brown" (_Horsfield_). The tail is short,
attenuated towards the end, and covered with rough hairs.

SIZE.--From snout to root of tail, 25 inches; tail, 7 inches; height
at the rump, 12 inches.

M. Duvaucel states that "it passes the greatest part of the day in
profound somnolence, but becomes active at the approach of night;
its gait is heavy, slow, and painful; it readily supports itself
erect on its hind feet, and prefers vegetables to flesh."

Jerdon alludes to all this, and adds, "one kept in captivity
preferred fruit, plantains, &c., as food, and refused all kinds of
meat. Another would eat meat, fish, and used to burrow and grope under
the walls of the bungalow for worms and shells." My idea is
_Balu-suar_, or Sand-pig is the correct name, although _Bhalu-suar_
or Bear-pig may hit off the appearance of the animal better, but its
locality has always been pointed out to me by the Gonds in the sandy
beds of rivers in the bamboo forests of Seonee; and Horsfield also
has it _Baloo-soor_, Sand-pig.

Bewick, who was the first to figure and describe it, got, as the
vulgar phrase hath it, the wrong pig by the lug, as he translates
it _Sand-bear_. McMaster also speaks of those he saw as being in deep
ravines on the Sitang river.

The stomach of Arctonyx is simple; there is no caecum, as is the case
also with the bears; the liver has five lobes; under the tail it has
glands, as in the Badgers, secreting a fatty and odorous substance.


NO. 171. ARCTONYX TAXOIDES.
_The Assam Badger_.

HABITAT.--Assam and Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--Smaller than the last, with longer and finer fur,
narrower muzzle, smaller ears, shorter tail, and more distinct
markings. The measurement of the respective skulls show a great
difference. The length of a skull of a female of this species given
by Dr. Anderson is 4.75 inches against 6.38 of a female of _A.
collaris_. The breadth across the zygomatic arch is 2.38 against 3.64
of _A. collaris_. The breadth of the palate between the molars is
only 0.81 against 1.07.


_GENUS MELES_.
_SUB-GENUS TAXIDIA_.

This sub-genus is that of the American type of Badger, to which
Hodgson, who first described the Thibetan _T. leucurus_, supposed
his species to belong; but other recent naturalists, among whom are
Drs. Gray and Anderson, prefer to class it as _Meles_. Hodgson
founded his classification on the dentition of his specimen, but
Blyth has thrown some doubt on its correctness, believing that the
skull obtained by Hodgson with the skin was that of _Meles
albogularis_. Hodgson, however, says: "from the English Badger type
of restricted _Meles_ our animal may be at once discriminated without
referring to skulls by its inferior size, greater length of tail,
and partially-clad planta or foot-sole."


NO. 172. MELES (TAXIDIA) LEUCURUS.
_The Thibetan White-tailed Badger_.

NATIVE NAME.--_Tampha_.

HABITAT.--The plains of Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--"Fur long, flaccid, dark iron-grey and white mixed;
hair long, white, with a broad sub-lunate black band and a white tip;
under fur abundant, long, white; a streak on each side of the forehead
blackish grey, varied; chin, throat, legs and under side of the body
black; tail, sides of head, and body whitish."--_Gray_.

The aspect, according to Hodgson, is entirely that of a long-tailed
Badger (Gray remarks: "it most resembles the European animal "), with
somewhat smaller head, with longer, finer fur than usual; the entire
sole of the foot is not naked, but only about two-thirds, and the
toe-pads are very much developed, thus raising the powerful long
fossorial claws from the ground in walking.

SIZE.--Total length 37 inches, of which the tail, with the hair, is
10 inches, and without the hair 7 inches; the longest hair of the
body is 4-1/2 inches.

There is not much known about the _Tampha_. According to what Hodgson
was able to gather concerning his habits, "he dwells in the more
secluded spots of inhabited districts, makes a comfortable, spacious
and well-arranged subterraneous abode, dwells there in peace with
his mate, who has an annual brood of two to four young, molests not
his neighbour, defends himself if compelled to it with unconquerable
resolution, and feeds on roots, nuts, insects and reptiles, but
chiefly the two former--on vegetables, not animals--a point of
information confirmed by the prevalent triturant character of the
teeth." The colouring of this animal is almost identical with the
English badger, only that his tail is longer and whiter.


NO. 173. MELES ALBOGULARIS.
_The White-throated Thibetan Badger_.

HABITAT.--Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Smaller and much less tufted ears than the last
species; a shorter and much less bushy tail; and the fur shorter and
coarser, though of finer texture than in the European badger, with
much woolly hair at its base. Both the English badger and _M.
leucurus_ are black throated; this one is white throated. The English
animal has a broad band of brownish-black, which begins between the
muzzle and the eye, and runs through the eye and ear till it fades
off on the neck; the space of white between these two bands on the
forehead runs back and contracts behind the ears. In the Thibetan
animal it contracts just behind the eyes, and is continued as a faint
narrow streak only as far as the ears. In the English one the cheeks
are broadly white between the eye-band and the black throat; in the
Thibetan there is a little white below the eye, and this is bordered
by a narrow black stripe, beneath which is the white throat.

There is another Thibetan badger mentioned by Professor
Milne-Edwards in his 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' a
white-throated one, _M. obscurus_, but it appears to be the same as
_M. albogularis_.


_GENUS MELLIVORA_.

Tubercular grinder transverse; flesh-tooth larger, with a small
internal lobe, and with a single tubercle; lower flesh-tooth
tricuspidate, sharp-edged; head depressed; nose blunt; ears not
visible externally; body stout, depressed; legs short, and strong;
feet plantigrade, five-toed; front claws elongated and strong; the
bald sole of the hind foot occupying the whole under surface, only
slightly divided across about one-third of its length from the front;
tail very short, with powerfully offensive glands; it has a thick
loose skin and a subcutaneous layer of fat, which doubtless protect
it from stings of bees, on which this genus is supposed to feed
whenever it can.


NO. 174. MELLIVORA INDICA.
_The Indian Ratel or Honey-Badger_ (_Jerdon's No. 94_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Biju_, Hind.; _Biyu-khawar_, Telegu; _Tavakaradi_,
Tamil; _Bajru-bhal_, at Bhagulpore (Santali?); _Bharsiah_,
Nepalese.

HABITAT.--Throughout India.

[Figure: _Mellivora Indica_.]

DESCRIPTION.--The upper half of its body is ashy-grey; the lower half,
muzzle, limbs, and tail black; the general appearance is that of a
black animal with a grey cloak on its back. The only difference
between the Indian and the Cape Ratel is, that the grey cloak of the
latter has a conspicuous white border which is wanting in the Indian
species; the tail also of the latter is shorter, otherwise they are
the same, and were for a long time considered the same.

SIZE.--Head and body, 26 to 32 inches; tail, 5 to 6 inches.

Jerdon says it is chiefly found in hilly districts, and that he has
not found it in Lower Bengal nor on the Malabar coast. In Central
India it is not uncommon. It has got a reputation for digging into
graves, and is called in some parts "the grave-digger;" but I do not
believe in its carnivorous propensities to this extent; it lives
principally on small fry, insects, and small animals, honey and
vegetable food. Jerdon says it is destructive to poultry, which is
probable, for it will eat small birds. Both it and the Cape species
will eagerly look out for bees, but it is not to be supposed, as some
books would make out, that bees and honey form the staple diet. Its
thick and loose skin, the stiffness of the hair above, and the layer
of fat below, effectually preserve it from the effects of the stings.
The tail glands contain a very strong and pungent secretion.

Some years ago, before I knew exactly what they were, the Ratels in
the London Zoological Gardens used to interest me greatly. They had
a low cage, on the ground I think, and their peculiar antics never
failed to draw a crowd. They used to run round in an idiotic sort
of way, and always at one point gravely turn head over heels and then
proceed as before and repeat. In Cassell's 'Natural History' this
is alluded to, only the writer says that now they are in fresh
quarters, and the flitting seems to have disturbed them. He adds:
"We have often watched one of them run round and round the cage in
the usual purposeless manner of captive animals, but with this
peculiarity: when he reached a particular corner of the den, he
quietly, and without effort, turned head over heels, and then went
on again. On one occasion, after he had been doing this with great
regularity for some rounds he seemed to become abstracted, and passed
the usual spot without the somersault; when, however, he had
proceeded a few paces he recollected himself, stopped for a moment,
returned to the exact place, turned over as usual, and proceeded
without further let or hindrance." The African species is said to
live largely on bees--I suppose ground bees, such as our English
humble bee, for these animals are not arboreal--and it is said to
exhibit great skill in tracking the flying insects to their nest.
"Sparrman states that it seats itself on a hillock to look for the
bees, and shades its eyes with one forepaw against the rays of the
setting sun." Here is something for our Indian naturalists to observe.
Some other animals are said to do the same; whether the Biju does
it or not I cannot say. McMaster says of it: "Two that I saw in
confinement appeared very good-tempered, and much more playful than
tame bears would have been. They were, I think, fed entirely upon
vegetables, rice and milk." This animal is the same as Hodgson's
_Ursitaxus inauritus_, the _Bharsiah_ which figures as a separate
genus in Cuvier. The skull is very like that of the wolverenes in
general form.


_GENUS GULO--THE GLUTTON OR WOLVERENE_.

This animal was placed by Linnaeus among the _Ursidae_, and is
classed by some with the _Melididae_, but its dentition is more that
of the Martens, which occupy the next group. The true Glutton (_Gulo
luscus_) is not known in India, but we have some so-called Wolverenes
(_Helictis_) to which I shall presently allude. Still a few remarks
about the typical animal, which is by no means an uninteresting
creature, may not be out of place. The Glutton inhabits a wide tract
of country in the Northern Hemisphere, the colder regions of Europe,
Asia, and America; it is abundant in Siberia and Kamschatka, and is
the pest of the trappers in North America. Fabulous stories were told
of this animal in olden days, some of which are still propagated at
the present time. It was supposed to be of insatiable appetite, and
to attack its prey (deer, &c.) by dropping down from the branch of
a tree on to the back of its victim, and to eat its way into a vital
part, whilst being carried along--a decided fallacy, for neither the
Glutton nor our Indian species of _Helictis_ are arboreal in their
habits. Then it was accused of eating to such a pitch of distention
that it had to squeeze itself between two close-growing trees for
relief ere it returned again to the repast. There is no doubt, however,
that it is to a great extent voracious and extremely cunning; and
what it cannot eat it will carry off and hide. The trappers complain
bitterly of it, and spare no pains to kill every one they can come
across; but it is not easily to be caught, and only a very
cunningly-devised bait will succeed.

Were I to relate some of the stories recorded of this animal I might
get accused, if not of being a romancer myself, at all events of being
a too credulous propagator of other people's romances. It is told
of it that it will discover hidden stores, and, digging them up out
of the snow, carefully smooth the surface over again; that it will
avoid every trap set for itself, and, going round to the back of
spring guns, gnaw through the string connected with the trigger
before it drags away the bait. It follows up the lines laid down by
the trappers, taking the martens out, and devouring them, or hiding
what it cannot eat, and by wearying out the patience of the hunters,
compel them to strike a new "marten-road."

It is said by Dr. Coues to possess a singular habit of sitting down
on its haunches, shading its eyes with a forepaw, and gazing
earnestly at the approaching enemy before it takes to flight. I have
already alluded to the Cape ratel doing this on the look-out for bees.
The Indian form of Wolverene is a slighter and much smaller animal,
with a still more weasel-like appearance. The Glutton is
comparatively a large beast, the body being about 2-1/2 feet, and
the tail 10 inches; the _Helictis_ is only half the size, and there
is a slight difference in the dentition.


_GENUS HELICTIS_.

"Head tapering; nose acute, conical; muzzle bald, obliquely
truncated; other side hairy, with a central groove; nostrils
inferior; ears ovate; body slender; legs short; toes 5.5; front claws
elongate, curved; hinder short and acute; sole of foot hairy behind,
bald in front, and rhombic for half the length of the foot, with three
large oblong pads on the front, and three small ones on the hinder
edge; toes elongate; thumb short; fur black, like _Herpestes_; tail
moderate, sub-cylindrical; teeth, 38; premolars, 4--4/4--4;
grinders, 5/6."--Gray.

There are four species of this genus, and of these two come within
the geographical limits of these papers, viz., _Helictis Nipalensis_
and _H. moschata_; the third, _H. orientalis_, belongs to Java; and
the fourth, _H. subaurantiaca_, to Formosa.


NO. 175. HELICTIS NIPALENSIS.
_The Nepal Wolverene_ (_Jerdon's No. 95_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Oker_, Nepalese; _Kyoung-pyan_, Arakanese.

HABITAT.--Nepal, Arakan, and Pegu.

DESCRIPTION.--Hodgson, who first described this animal in the
'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Beng.' (vol. v. pp. 237-38), says:
"Above earthy brown; below, with the edge of the upper lip, the
insides of the limbs, and terminal half of the tail, yellow; a white
mesial stroke from the nape to the hips, and a white band across the
forehead, spreading on the cheeks, and confluent with the pale colour
of the animal's lower surface; head and body vermi-formed; digits
and nails of the anterior extremities stronger; half way from the
os calcis to the fingers hairy; fur of two sorts and abundant, but
not lengthened, nor harsh, nor annulated; tail cylindrico-tapered,
pointed, half the length of the animal." He goes on to add: "The
anterior limbs are decidedly fossorial, and the hinder suited for
walking in a sub-plantigrade manner; both wholly unfitted for
rapatory or scansorial purposes."

SIZE.--Head and body 16 inches; tail 7-1/2 inches, 9 inches,
including hair.

The habits of this animal are nocturnal. Swinhoe mentions this in
his account of the Formosan species, and Dr. Anderson relates that
he is aware that the Nepal one is similar in its ways, and that it
not unfrequently enters Bhotia huts at night; and on one occasion
he killed one in a Bhotia hut, thinking it was a large rat, greatly
to the chagrin of his host, who informed him that the animal was in
the habit of visiting him nightly, and was most useful in destroying
cockroaches and other insects.


NO. 176. HELICTIS MOSCHATA.
_The Chinese Wolverene_.

HABITAT.--China, also Burmah (Pegu, Yunnan).

DESCRIPTION.--Similar to the last, but differing in dentition and
the formation of certain points in the skull. The teeth are smaller,
and the infra-orbital foramen much larger. Both the above species
are noted for long skulls and palate, whereas _H. orientalis_ has
a short skull and palate. The following are the chief characteristics:--

Short head and palate, large teeth, _small_ infra-orbital foramen
= _H. orientalis_.

Long head and palate, large teeth, _small_ infra-orbital foramen =
_H. Nipalensis_.

Long head and palate, _small_ teeth, _large_ infra-orbital foramen
= _H. moschata_.

Dr. Anderson obtained a specimen of this species at an elevation of
5000 feet, at Teng-yue-chow in Yunnan.


MUSTELIDAE--MARTENS AND WEASELS.

In India the members of this family are restricted to the Weasels
and Martens, but in other countries are included the Grisons,
Zorillas, Skunks, &c. They are small animals of elongated form, with
short legs, commonly expressed as vermiform; where the head of a
weasel will go his body will follow--at least that was my experience
in my boyish days, when I was particularly interested in vermin, and
the gamekeeper was my first instructor in natural history. The face
is rounded like a cat, but the skull behind the eye is very long and
pear-shaped when viewed from above; in proportion to a cat's skull
the brain case is a fourth longer. They are most sanguinary in their
habits, and their agility is great, so on the whole they are most
formidable to many animals, not only smaller, but in many cases four
times their own size. The ferocity of the common weasel (_Putorius
vulgaris_) ought to be as proverbial as its watchfulness. A case has
been known of a kite carrying off one of these animals, but falling
dead after a time with the large blood-vessels under the wing cut
through by the savage little prisoner, who, on reaching _terra firma_,
escaped apparently unhurt. I think in Wolff's admirable
'Illustrations of Natural History' this fact, related by Bell, is
made the subject of a picture called "Catching a Tartar."

[Figure: Skull of _Putorius_.]

Most of the animals of this group are eagerly sought for on account
of their fur. In Northern India the skin of one species, probably
a variety of _Martes abietum_, is sold in the bazaars at Peshawur
and Lahore. In 1868 I bought sufficient to line a large overcoat,
which proved most comfortable in travelling in the cold weather in
the Punjab, as well as in subsequent wanderings on the European
continent in winter.

Dr. E. Coues, in his monograph on the North American Mustelidae,
gives the following interesting information regarding the number of
skins of various species sold by the Hudson's Bay Company in London
during the century 1769-1868:--

Sables, 1,240,511; otters, 674,027; wolverenes, 68,694; minks,
1,507,240; skunks, 218,653; badgers, 275,302; sea otters, 5349. In
1868, which appears to have been a prosperous year, the Company sold:
Sables, 106,254; otters, 14,966; wolverenes, 1104; minks, 73,473;
skunks, 6298; badgers, 1551; sea otters, 123.[8]

[Footnote 8: In the same year were sold by other firms, 22,000 otter
skins and 4500 sables. See Appendix _C_ for further statistics.]

When one considers the number of those whose skins are damaged and
cast aside, the number that fall victims to larger predatory animals,
and the operations of disease, from which no animals, small or great,
are free, we may form some idea of the immense multitude of these
little creatures.

The ordinary divisions of the restricted Mustelidae are the Martens
(_Martes_), Pole-cats (_Putorius_), and Weasels (_Mustela_), but
Gray has further subdivided them chiefly on the characteristics of
the feet.

The Martens have four more teeth than the rest, which are
distinguished as follows:--

_Putorius_.--Short ovate head; feet very hairy, especially between
the pads; body stout; underside blackish.

_Mustela_.--Narrow, elongated head; feet very hairy between the
pads; slender body; under-side yellow or white.

_Vison_.--Head elongate, narrow; feet slightly hairy; pads exposed;
body rather slender; under-side same colour as upper.

_Gymnopus_.--Head elongate, narrow; feet rather naked, bald beneath,
between, and rather behind the pads; toes largely webbed; soles hairy
behind; body slender.

It is doubtful whether these distinctions are of sufficient
importance to warrant so much subdivision; and unnecessary
multiplication of genera is a thing to be avoided as much as possible.


_GENUS MARTES--THE MARTENS_.

A more or less arboreal group of larger size, and possibly less
sanguinary habits than the weasels, although in this respect I do
not think there is much difference. The tail is longer, though not
so long as the head and body, and it is bushy; the fur is fine and
in general highly prized; the dentition differs from the typical
_Mustela_ in having four more teeth and an additional false molar
on either side in each jaw; and the inner side of the carnassial or
flesh tooth has a tubercle which is not present in the weasels; head
elongate; feet very hairy; space between the pads hairy, often
covering them from sight, except in the case of _Martes flavigula_,
of which the soles are nude.


NO. 177. MARTES FLAVIGULA.
_The White-cheeked Marten_ (_Jerdon's No. 96_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Mal-sampra_, Nepalese; _Tuturala_ in Kumaon;
_Kusiah_ in Sirmoor; _Huniah_ or _Aniar_, Bhotia; _Sakku_, Lepcha.

HABITAT.--Nepal, Thibet, Kumaon, Gurhwal, Sirmoor, Assam, Burmah,
Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION.--Glossy blackish brown, with the throat and breast
yellow; the chin and lower parts white, from which I have preferred
to call it after Pennant "the White-cheeked Marten" instead of the
"yellow-throated," this characteristic belonging also to some other
species. The fur seems to vary a good deal. Jerdon says of it: "The
body is at times dirty brownish or chestnut brown, or brown mixed
with grey, and the middle of the back is sometimes paler than the
rest, or the same tint as the sides of the body. In some the top of
the head is pale brown, but it is edged by a dark peripheral line,
and in some there are one or more irregular dark spots between the
fore-limbs."

Blyth writes of the Burmese specimens that they are "similar to the
Himalayan, but differing from the Malayan race--found also in
Formosa--by having much longer fur, and a wholly black cap instead
of a brown cap with a black periphery." The soles are nude.

SIZE.--Head and body about 20 inches; tail, including fur, 12
inches.

This Indian Marten, according to Jerdon, is also found in Ceylon;
it was, however, apparently unknown to Kellaart, nor does Sir Emerson
Tennent allude to it. It is to be had in the Neilgherries, the Khasia
hills, and the ranges in Arakan, as well as in the valleys of the
great Himalayan chain up to 7000 or 8000 feet of elevation. It is
found in pairs or in small families of five or six. If hunted it takes
to trees at once, being a good climber. According to Captain the Hon.
C. Shore, who observed its habits in Kumaon and Gurhwal, "its food
is chiefly birds, rats, mice, hares and even young fawns of the kakur
or barking-deer." He adds: "The specimen sent to the Zoological
Society was brought to me in September 1828, when it was about four
months old. It had been caught when not many days old, and was so
tame that it was always kept loose about a well, sporting about the
windlasses, posts, &c., and playing tricks with the people who came
to draw water." This is the one alluded to by Jerdon as having been
described by Mr. Bennett in the 'Gardens and Menageries of the
Zoological Society.' _Martes Gwatkinsi_ of Horsfield's Catalogue
(page 99), is evidently, as Jerdon says, the same as _M. flavigula_,
although the colouring is different, and is supposed to be the same
animal in its summer fur, some specimens being darker than others.
It is just one hundred years since this little animal was first
described, the earliest record of it being in Pennant's 'History of
Quadrupeds' (first edition), published in 1781. It must, however,
have been known before that, for Pennant first observed it in
Brooks's Menagerie in 1774, and named it the "White-cheeked Weasel,"
which Boddart afterwards in 1785 introduced into his 'Elenchus
Animalium' under the name of _Mustela flavigula_ (_Horsfield_).


NO. 178. MARTES ABIETUM.
_The Pine Marten_.

HABITAT.--Ladakh and the Upper Himalayas, Afghanistan (?)

[Illustration: _Martes abietum_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Brown; throat yellow or yellow spotted (_Gray_).
Light yellowish-grey, rather deeper in a line along the back; the
hair brown; extremities blackish; chin, threat and breast white
(according to Horsfield).

SIZE.--About 18 to 20 inches; tail 12 inches.

Horsfield remarks that the specimens received in the Indian Museum
combine the peculiarities of the Pine and Beech Martens respectively,
and lead to the conclusion that both are varieties of one species.
This idea was prevalent some time ago, and the Beech Marten (_M.
foina_) was supposed to be merely a variety of the Pine species, but
there are certain differences in the skulls of the two animals. It
is stated by the editor of my edition of Cuvier that, on examination
of the crania of the two, he found that those of _M. abietum_ are
constantly smaller, with the zygomatic arch fully twice as strong
as in the other. There is also a slight difference in the teeth, the
hinder upper tubercular grinder in _M. foina_ not being quite so
large as in the other.

The Pine Marten has a wide distribution; the finest specimens are
found in Sweden; in England it is becoming scarce, but in other parts
of Europe and Asia it is common. Professor Parker and his brother
write of it: "This animal is essentially arboreal in its habits,
inhabiting chiefly thick coniferous woods, whence its name of Pine
Marten is derived. In the branches the female makes a nest of leaves
or moss, and sometimes spares herself this trouble by ejecting
squirrels or woodpeckers, and occupying the vacant dwellings. For
its size it is, like all the Mustelidae, extremely ferocious and
strong. It attacks and kills fawns, notwithstanding their superior
size; from these down to mice nothing comes amiss to it, and nothing
is safe from its attacks." It seems almost incredible that such a
small animal should venture on such large game, but the same is
reported of _M. flavigula_; and a much smaller creature, the
Yellow-bellied Weasel, _M. kathiah_, is reported by Hodgson to
attack even goats and sheep.


NO. 179. MARTES TOUFOEUS.

NATIVE NAME.--_Toufee_.

HABITAT.--Thibet.

DESCRIPTION (from skins only).--General colour smoky brown, darker
along the spine and on the limbs, but without marks, and paler to
sordid yellowish hoary on the neck and head; head palest, except the
mystaceal region and chin, which are embrowned; moustache moderate
and dark brown.

SIZE.--Head and body about 20 to 22 inches.

The above description is taken from Hodgson, who had only received
imperfect skins. Jerdon just alludes to it by name, but I cannot find
it mentioned by any other author. As much stress cannot be laid on
colouring in these animals, I feel inclined to think that it is a
variety of _Martes abietum_, probably in its dark summer coat.


_GENUS MUSTELA--THE WEASELS_.

These are smaller animals of the true vermiform shape; the legs are
very short in comparison with the body, and the neck is very thick
and very long, and the head is small, so that head, neck, and body
are almost equally cylindrical, and the length of the neck gives a
far, set-back appearance to the forelegs, so much so that they seem
to start from behind the chest instead of in front of it. The teeth
are 34 in number, or four less than in the preceding genus; upper
tubercular grinder transverse or broader than long; the feet are
slightly webbed, covered with hair, and the space between the pads
is hairy; the tail is short; fur dark above, white or yellowish
beneath.

[Illustration: _Mustela_.]

Some authors contend that the weasel, though commonly referred to
the genus _Mustela_, should be _Putorius_, which is an instance of
the disagreement which exists among naturalists. I have however
followed Gray in his classification, although perhaps Cuvier, who
classes the weasels and pole-cats under the genus _Putorius_, has
the claim of priority. Ray applied the name of _Mustela_ to the
restricted weasels, and _Martes_ to the martens, but Cuvier gives
_Mustela_ to the martens, and brings the weasels and pole-cats
together under _Putorius_.


NO. 180. MUSTELA (VISON: _Gray_) SUB-HEMACHALANA.
_The Sub-Hemachal Weasel_ (_Jerdon's No. 97_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Zimiong_, Bhotia; _Sang-king_, Lepcha; _Kran_ or
_Gran_, Kashmiri.

DESCRIPTION.--"Uniform bright brown, darker along the dorsal line;
nose, upper lip, and forehead, with two inches of the end of the tail
black-brown; mere edge of upper lip and whole of lower jaw hoary;
a short longitudinal white stripe occasionally on the front of the
neck, and some vague spots of the same laterally, the signs, I suspect,
of immaturity; feet frequently darker than the body or dusky brown;
whiskers dark; fur close, glossy and soft, of two sorts, or fine hair
and soft wool, the latter and the hair basally of dusky hue, but the
hair externally bright brown; head, ears, and limbs more closely clad
than the body, tail more laxly, tapering to the point."--_Hodgson_.

SIZE.--Head and body about 12 inches; tail, 6 inches.

Jerdon calls this the Himalayan Weasel, but I have preferred to
translate Hodgson's' name, which, I confess, puzzled me for some time
till I found out there was a Hemachal range in Thibet.


NO. 181. MUSTELA (GYMNOPUS: _Gray_) KATHIAH.
_The Yellow-bellied Weasel_ (_Jerdon's No. 98_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Kathia-nyal_, Nepalese.

HABITAT.--Nepal, Bhotan.

DESCRIPTION.--Dark brown; upper lip, chin, throat, chest, underside
of body and front of thighs, bright yellow; tail dark brown, shorter
than the body and head, tapering, and of the same colour to the tip;
the soles of the hind feet bald; pads well developed, exposed.

SIZE.--Head and body, 10 inches; tail, 5 inches.

Hodgson states that a horribly offensive yellowish-grey fluid exudes
from two subcaudal glands. He says that the Nepalese highly prize
this little animal for its services in ridding houses of rats. It
is easily tamed; and such is the dread of it common to all murine
animals that not one will approach a house wherein it is domiciled.
Rats and mice seem to have an instinctive sense of its hostility to
them, so much so that when it is introduced into a house they are
observed to hurry away in all directions, being apprised, no doubt,
of its presence by the peculiar odour it emits. Its ferocity and
courage are made subservient to the amusement of the rich, who train
it to attack large fowls, geese, and even goats and sheep. It seizes
these by the great artery of the neck, and does not quit its hold
till the victim sinks exhausted from the loss of blood--a cruel
pastime which one could only expect of a barbarous people.


NO. 182. MUSTELA (GYMNOPUS: _Gray_) STRIGIDORSA.
_The Striped Weasel_ (_Jerdon's No. 99_).

HABITAT.--Sikim.

DESCRIPTION.--Dark chestnut-brown, with a narrow streak of long
yellow hairs down the back; edge of upper lip, chin, throat, chest,
and a narrow stripe down the centre of the belly, yellow, or
yellowish-white.

SIZE.--Head and body, 12 inches; tail, 5-1/2 inches without the hair,
6-1/2 inches with it.

This is similar to the last, but is slightly larger, and
distinguishable by the dorsal stripe.


NO. 183. MUSTELA ERMINEA.
_The Ermine or Stoat_.

HABITAT.--Europe, America and Asia (the Himalayas, Nepal, Thibet,
Afghanistan).

DESCRIPTION.--Brown above; upper lip, chin, and lower surface of
body, inside of limbs and feet yellowish-white; tail brown, with a
black tip. In winter the whole body changes to a yellowish-white,
with the exception of the black tip of the tail.

SIZE.--Head and body, about 10 inches; tail, 4-1/2 inches.

This is about the best known in a general way from its fur being used
as part of the insignia of royalty. The fur however only becomes
valuable after it has completed its winter change. How this is done
was for a long time a subject of speculation and inquiry. It is,
however, now proved that it is according to season that the mode of
alteration is effected. In spring the new hairs are brown, replacing
the white ones of winter; in autumn the existing brown hairs turn
white. Mr. Bell, who gave the subject his careful consideration, says
that in Ross's first Polar expedition, a Hudson's Bay lemming
(_Myodes_) was exposed in its summer coat to a temperature of 30
degrees below zero. Next morning the fur on the cheeks and a patch
on each shoulder had become perfectly white; at the end of the week
the winter change was complete, with the exception of a dark band
across the shoulder and a dorsal stripe.

Hodgson remarks that the Ermine is common in Thibet, where the skins
enter largely into the peltry trade with China.

In one year 187,000 skins were imported into England.


NO. 184. MUSTELA (VISON: _Gray_) CANIGULA.
_The Hoary Red-necked Weasel_.

HABITAT.--Nepal hills, Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Pale reddish-brown, scarcely paler beneath; face,
chin, throat, sides of neck and chest white; tail half as long as
body and head, concolorous with the back; feet whitish. Sometimes
chest brown and white mottled, according to Gray. Hodgson, who
discovered the animal, writes: "Colour throughout cinnamon red
without black tip to the tail, but the chaffron and entire head and
neck below hoary."

SIZE.--15-1/2 inches; tail without hair 7-1/2 inches, with hair
9-1/2 inches.


NO. 185. MUSTELA STOLICZKANA.

HABITAT.--Yarkand.

DESCRIPTION.--Colour pale sandy brown above; hairs light at base,
white below; tail concolorous with back; small white spot close to
anterior angle of each eye; a sandy spot behind the gape; feet
whitish.

SIZE.--Head and body, 12.2; tail, 3 inches, including hair.


NO. 186. MUSTELA (VISON) SIBIRICA.

HABITAT.--Himalayas (Thibet?); Afghanistan (Candahar).

DESCRIPTION.--Pale brown; head blackish, varied; spot on each side
of nose, on upper and lower lips and front of chin, white; tail end
pale brown like back, varies; throat more or less white.

This Weasel, described first by Pallas ('Specil Zool.' xiv. t. 4,
f. 1.) was obtained in Candahar by Captain T. Hutton, who describes
it in the 'Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal,' vol. xiv. pp. 346 to
352.


NO. 187. MUSTELA ALPINA.
_The Alpine Weasel_.

HABITAT.--Said to be found in Thibet, otherwise an inhabitant of the
Altai mountains.

DESCRIPTION.--Pale yellow brown; upper lip, chin, and underneath
yellowish-white; head varied with black-tipped hairs; tail
cylindrical, unicolour, not so long as head and body.--_Gray_.


NO. 188. MUSTELA HODGSONI.

HABITAT.--Himalaya, Afghanistan.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur yellowish-brown, paler beneath; upper part and
side of head much darker; face, chin, and throat varied with white;
tail long, and bushy towards the end.


NO. 189. MUSTELA (VISON) HORSFIELDI.

HABITAT.--Bhotan.

DESCRIPTION.--Uniform dark blackish-brown, very little paler
beneath; middle of front of chin and lower lip white; whiskers black;
tail slender, blackish at tip, half the length of head and body.


NO. 190. MUSTELA (GYMNOPUS) NUDIPES.
_Gymnopus leucocephalus_ of Gray.

HABITAT.--Borneo, Sumatra, Java, but possibly Tenasserim.

DESCRIPTION.--Golden fulvous with white head.

As so many Malayan animals are found on the confines of Burmah, and
even extending into Assam, it is probable that this species may be
discovered in Tenasserim.


_GENUS PUTORIUS--THE POLE-CAT_.

This is a larger animal than the weasel, and in form more resembles
the marten, except in the shortness of its tail; the body is stouter
and the neck shorter than in _Mustela_; the head is short and ovate;
the feet generally hairy, and the space between the pads very much
so; the under side of the body is blackish; the fur is made up of
two kinds, the shorter is woolly and lighter coloured than the longer,
which is dark and shining.

The disgusting smell of the common Pole-cat (_Putorius foetidus_)
is well known, and has become proverbial. In my county, as well as
in many parts of England, the popular name is "foumart," which is
said to be derived from "foul marten." The foumart is the special
abhorrence of the game-keeper; it does more damage amongst game and
poultry than any of the other _Mustelidae_, and consequently greater
pains are taken to trap and shoot it, in fact, so much so that I wonder
that the animal is not now extinct in the British Isles. Professor
Parker writes: "It has been known to kill as many as sixteen turkeys
in a single night; and indeed it seems to be a point of honour with
this bloodthirsty little creature to kill everything it can
overpower, and to leave no survivors on its battle-fields."
According to Bell, a female Pole-cat, which was tracked to her nest,
was found to have laid up in a side hole a store of food consisting
of forty frogs and two toads, all bitten through the brain, so that,
though capable of living for some time, they were deprived of the
power of escape. Now, this is a most wonderful instance of instinct
bordering upon reason. Only the Reptilia can exist for any length
of time after injury to the brain; to any of the smaller mammalia
such a process as that adopted by the Pole-cat, would have resulted
in instant death and speedy decomposition.

The Ferret (_Putorius furo_) is a domesticated variety of the
Pole-cat, reputed to be of African origin. Certain it is that it
cannot stand extreme cold like its wild cousin, and an English winter
is fatal to it if not properly looked after. It inter-breeds with
the Pole-cat.

Ferrets are not safe pets in houses where there are young children.
Cases have been known of their attacking infants in the cradle, and
severely lacerating them.

They are chiefly used for killing rats and driving rabbits out of
burrows; in the latter case they are muzzled. As pets they are stupid,
and show but little attachment. Forbearance as regards making its
teeth meet in your fingers is, I think, the utmost you can expect
in return for kindness to a ferret, and that is something,
considering what a sanguinary little beast it is.


NO. 191. PUTORIUS LARVATUS _vel_ TIBETANUS.
_Black-faced Thibetan Pole-cat_.

HABITAT.--Utsang in Thibet, also Ladakh.

DESCRIPTION.--"Tail one-third of entire length; soles clad; fur
long; above and laterally sordid fulvous, deeply shaded on the back
with black; below from throat backwards, with the whole limbs and
tail, black; head pale, with a dark mask over the face."--_Hodgson_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 14 inches; tail, 6 inches, with hair 7 inches;
palma, 1-3/4; planta, 2-3/8.

This animal, according to Gray, is synonymous with the Siberian
_Putorius Eversmannii_, although the sudden contraction of the brain
case in front, behind the orbit, mentioned of this species, is not
perceptible in the illustration given by Hodgson of the skull of this
Thibetan specimen. Horsfield, in his catalogue, states that the
second specimen obtained by Captain R. Strachey in Ladakh, north of
Kumaon, agreed in external character.

In some respects it is similar to the European Pole-cat, but as yet
little is known of its habits.


NO. 192. PUTORIUS DAVIDIANUS.

HABITAT.--Moupin in Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Uniform fulvous brown, yellower under the throat;
upper lip and round nostrils to corner of the eye white, darker on
nose and forehead.

SIZE.--Head and body about 11-1/2 inches; tail, 6-1/2 inches.

This is one of the specimens collected by the Abbe David, after whom
it is named. A fuller description of it will be found in
Milne-Edwards's 'Recherches sur les Mammiferes,' page 343. There is
also a plate of the animal in the volume of illustrations.


NO. 193. PUTORIUS ASTUTUS.

HABITAT.--Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--About the size of Ermine, but with a longer tail.
Colour brown, the white of the chest tinted with yellow; tail uniform
in colour, darker on head.

SIZE.--Head and body, 10 inches; tail, 4-1/5 inches.

This is also described and figured by Milne-Edwards.


NO. 194. PUTORIUS MOUPINENSIS.

HABITAT.--Thibet.

DESCRIPTION.--Reddish-brown, white under the chin, and then again
a patch on the chest.


_LUTRIDAE--THE OTTERS_.

We now come to the third group of the musteline animals, the most
aquatic of all the Fissipedia--the _Lutridae_ or Otters--of which
there are two great divisions, the common Otters (_Lutra_) and the
Sea-Otters, (_Enhydra_). With the latter, a most interesting animal
in all its ways, as well as most valuable on account of its fur, we
have nothing to do. I am not aware that it is found in the tropics,
but is a denizen of the North Pacific. Of _Lutra_ we have several
species in two genera. Dr. Gray has divided the Otters into no less
than nine genera on three characteristics, the tail, feet, and muzzle,
but these have been held open to objection. The classification most
to be depended upon is the division of the tribe into long-clawed
Otters (_Lutra_), and short or rudimentary-clawed Otters (_Aonyx_).
The characteristics of the skulls confirm this arrangement, as the
short-clawed Otters are distinguishable from the others by a shorter
and more globose cranium and larger molars, and, as Dr. Anderson says,
"the inner portion of the last molar being the largest part of the
tooth, while in _Lutra_ the outer exceeds the inner half; the almost
general absence of the first upper premolar; and the rudimentary
claws, which are associated with much more feebly-developed finger
and toe bones, which are much tapered to a point, while in _Lutra_
these bones are strong and well developed." Gray has separated a
genus, which he called _Pteronura_, on account of a flattened tail
arising from a longitudinal ridge on each side, but this flattening
of the tail is common to all the genera more or less.

All the Otters, though active on land, are still only thoroughly at
home in the water, and they are therefore specially constituted for
such a mode of life. They have an elongated flattened form; webbed
feet with short claws; compressed and tapering tail; dense fur of
two kinds, one of long brown shining hairs; the under fur short and
fine, impervious to wet, and well adapted for keeping an equality
of temperature; the skull is peculiar, the brain case being very long,
and compressed from above downwards; the facial portion forms only
about one-fourth of the extreme length; the teeth are strong and
sharp; the upper flesh tooth very large.

[Illustration: Otter's skull (side and under view).]

Dental formula: Inc., 3--3/3--3; can., 1--1/1--1; premolars,
4--4/3--3; molars, 1--1/2--2.

Jerdon states that the otter has a nictitating membrane or additional
semi-transparent eyelid, similar to that in the eyes of birds, which
he supposes is a defence to them under water; but I have not noticed
this myself, and have failed to discover it in the writings of others.
I should think that the vision of the animal under water would not
require obscuring by a semi-transparent membrane, which none of the
marine carnivora possess, though their eyes are somewhat formed for
seeing better under water than when exposed to the full light above.
Some idea of the rapidity of these animals in the water may be
conceived when we think that their food is almost exclusively fish,
of which they sometimes kill more than they can eat. They reside in
burrows, making the entrance under water, and working upwards,
making a small hole for the ventilation of their chamber. The female
has about four or five young ones at a time, after a period of
gestation of about nine weeks, and the mother very soon drives them
forth to shift for themselves in the water.

For a pretty picture of young otters at play in the water, nothing
could be better than the following description from Kingsley's
'Water Babies':--

"Suddenly Tom heard the strangest noise up the stream--cooing,
grunting, and whining, and squeaking, as if you had put into a bag
two stock-doves, nine mice, three guinea-pigs, and a blind puppy,
and left them there to settle themselves and make music. He looked
up the water, and there he saw a sight as strange as the noise: a
great ball rolling over and over down the stream, seeming one moment
of soft brown fur; and the next of shining glass, and yet it was not
a ball, for sometimes it broke up and streamed away in pieces, and
then it joined again; and all the while the noise came out of it louder
and louder. Tom asked the dragon-fly, what it could be: but of course
with his short sight he could not even see it, though it was not ten
yards away. So he took the neatest little header into the water, and
started off to see for himself; and when he came near, the ball turned
out to be four or five beautiful creatures, many times larger than
Tom, who were swimming about, and rolling, and diving, and twisting,
and wrestling, and cuddling, and kissing, and biting, and scratching,
in the most charming fashion that ever was seen. And if you don't
believe me you may go to the Zoological Gardens (for I am afraid you
won't see it nearer, unless, perhaps, you get up at five in the
morning, and go down to Cordery's Moor, and watch by the great withy
pollard which hangs over the back-water, where the otters breed
sometimes), and then say if otters at play in the water are not the
merriest, lithest, gracefullest creatures you ever saw."

Professor Parker, who also notices Kingsley's description,[9]
states that the Canadian otter has a peculiar habit in winter of
sliding down ridges of snow, apparently for amusement. It, with its
companions, scrambles up a high ridge, and then, lying down flat,
glides head-foremost down the declivity, sometimes for a distance
of twenty yards. "This sport they continue apparently with the
keenest enjoyment, until fatigue or hunger induces them to desist."

[Footnote 9: In fact it was his quotation that induced me to buy a
copy of that most charming little book, which I recommend every one
to read.--R. A. S.]

The following are the Indian species; _Lutra nair_, _L. simung vel
monticola_, _L. Ellioti_, and _L. aurobrunnea_ of the long-clawed
family, and _Aonyx leptonyx_ of the short-clawed.


_GENUS LUTRA_.


NO. 195. LUTRA NAIR.
_The Common Indian Otter_ (_Jerdon's No. 100_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Ud_ or _Ood_, _Ood-bilao_, _Panikutta_, Hindi;
_Nir-nai_, Canarese; _Neeru-kuka_, Telegu; _Jal-manjer_, Mahratti.

HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon.

[Illustration: _Lutra nair_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Hair more or less brown above, sometimes with a
chestnut hue, sometimes grizzled, or with a tinge of dun;
yellowish-white, or with a fulvescent tinged white below; the throat,
upper lip, and sides of head are nearly white; the line of separation
of upper and lower parts not very distinctly marked. Some have
whitish paws.

SIZE.--Head and body, 29 to 30 inches; tail about 17 inches.

This otter, which is synonymous with _L. Indica_, _L. Chinensis_ and
Hodgson's _L. Tarayensis_, is well known throughout India, and
indeed far beyond Indian limits. They are generally found in secluded
spots, in parties of about half a dozen hunting in concert. The young
ones are easily tamed, and become greatly attached if kindly treated.
I had one for some time. Jerdon tells a curious story of one he had,
and which used to follow him in his walks. He says: "As it grew older
it took to going about by itself, and one day found its way to the
bazaar and seized a large fish from a moplah. When resisted, it showed
such fight that the rightful owner was fain to drop it. Afterwards
it took regularly to this highway style of living, and I had on
several occasions to pay for my pet's dinner rather more than was
necessary, so I resolved to get rid of it. I put it in a closed box,
and, having kept it without food for some time, I conveyed it myself
in a boat some seven or eight miles off, up some of the numerous
back-waters on this coast. I then liberated it, and, when it had
wandered out of sight in some inundated paddy-fields, I returned by
boat by a different route. That same evening, about nine whilst in
the town about one and a-half miles from my own house, witnessing
some of the ceremonials connected with the Mohurrum festival, the
otter entered the temporary shed, walked across the floor, and came
and lay down at my feet!" It is to be hoped Dr. Jerdon did not turn
him adrift again; such wonderful sagacity and attachment one could
only expect in a dog.

McMaster gives the following interesting account of otters hunting
on the Chilka Lake: "Late one morning I saw a party, at least six
in number, leave an island on the Chilka Lake and swim out, apparently
to fish their way to another island, or the mainland, either at least
two miles off. I followed them for more than half the distance in
a small canoe. They worked most systematically in a semicircle, with
intervals of about fifty yards between each, having, I suppose, a
large shoal of fish in the centre, for every now and then an otter
would disappear, and generally, when it was again seen, it was well
inside the semicircle with a fish in its jaws, caught more for
pleasure than for profit, as the fish, as far as I could see, were
always left behind untouched beyond a single bite. I picked up
several of these fish, which, as far as I can recollect, were all
mullet." Kingsley notices this. The old otter tells Tom: "We catch
them, but we disdain to eat them all; we just bite out their soft
throats and suck their sweet juice--oh, so good!" (and she licked
her wicked lips)--"and then throw them away, and go and catch
another."

General McMaster also quotes from a letter by "W. C. R." in the
_Field_ about the end of 1868, which gives a very curious incident
of a crocodile stealing up to a pack of otters fishing, and got within
thirty yards; "but no sooner was the water broken by the hideous head
of the reptile, than an otter, which evidently was stationed on the
opposite bank as a sentinel, sounded the alarm by a whistling sort
of sound. In an instant those in the water rushed to the bank and
disappeared among the jungle, no doubt much to the disgust of the
_mugger_."

I have not heard any one allude to the offensive glands of the Indian
otter, but I remember once dissecting one and incautiously cutting
into one of these glands, situated, I think, near the tail. It is
now over twenty years ago, so I cannot speak with authority, but I
remember the abominable smell, which quite put a stop to my
researches at the time.

This otter is trained in some parts of India, in the Jessore district
and Sunderbunds of Bengal, to drive fish into nets. In China a species
there is driven into the water with a cord round its waist, which
is hauled in when the animal has caught a fish.


NO. 196. LUTRA MONTICOLA _vel_ SIMUNG.
(_Jerdon's No. 101_).

HABITAT.--Nepal, Sumatra, and Borneo.

DESCRIPTION.--"The colour is more rufous umber-brown than _L. nair_,
and does not exhibit any tendency to grizzling, and the under surface
is only somewhat hoary, well washed with brownish; the chin and edge
of the lips are whitish; and the silvery hoary on the sides of the
head, on the throat, and on the under surface of the neck and of the
chest is marked; the tail above and below is concolorous with the
trunk. The length of the skeleton of an adult female, measured from
the tip of the premaxillaries to the end of the sacral vertebrae,
is 23.25, and the tail measures 17.75 inches" (_Anderson_). Of the
Sumatran specimen the first notice was published in 1785 in the first
edition of Marsden's 'History of Sumatra.' This otter is larger than
the common Indian one, the skull of a female, as given by Dr. Anderson,
exceeding in all points that of male of _Lutra nair_.

Jerdon has this as _Lutra vulgaris_, which is the common English
otter, but there is a difference in the skull.


NO. 197. LUTRA ELLIOTI.

HABITAT.--Southern Mahratta country.

DESCRIPTION.--The colouring is the same as the last, only a little
darker; the distribution of the silvery white is the same; the muzzle
is however more depressed than in the last species, and it differs
from _L. nair_ by a broader, more arched head, and shorter muzzle.

Dr. Anderson, who distinguishes it by the feature of its skull from
the two preceding species, says: "It may be that this otter has a
north-westerly distribution, and that it is the species which occurs
in the lake at Mount Abu in Rajputana, and also in Sindh and in the
Indus."


NO. 198. LUTRA AUROBRUNNEA.

HABITAT.--Nepal.

DESCRIPTION.--Fur of a rich ferruginous brown colour, the upper
surface of the head being a deeper brown than the back; the nose is
bare; the ears are small and pointed posteriorily. All the strong
bristles of the moustache, eyes, cheeks, and chin, are dark brown;
claws as in _Lutra_ (_Anderson_). Hodgson says it has a more
vermiform body than the rest of Indian otters; tail less than two
thirds of the body; nails and toes feebly developed (whence it is
classed by Gray in the next genus); fur long and rough, rich
chestnut-brown above, golden red below and on the extremities.

SIZE.--Head and body, 20 to 22 inches; tail, 12 to 13 inches.


_GENUS AONYX--CLAWLESS OTTERS_.

Muzzle bald, oblong; skull broad, depressed, shorter and more
globose than in _Lutra_; the molars larger than in the last genus;
flesh tooth larger, and with a large internal lobe; first upper
premolar generally absent; feet oblong, elongate; toes slender and
tapering; claws rudimentary.


NO. 199. AONYX LEPTONYX.
_The Clawless Otter_ (_Jerdon's No. 102_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Chusam_, Bhotia; _Suriam_, Lepcha.

HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas, also in Lower Bengal and in
Burmah.

DESCRIPTION.--"Above earthy brown or chestnut brown; lips, sides of
head, chin, throat, and upper part of breast white, tinged with
yellowish-grey. In young individuals the white of the lower parts
is less distinct, sometimes very pale brownish."--_Jerdon_.

SIZE.--Head and body, 24 Inches; tail, 13.

Mason speaks of this species as common in Burmah, and McMaster
mentions his having seen in the Sitang River a colony of
white-throated otters smaller than _L. nair_, though larger than _L.
aurobrunnea_, but he did not secure specimens.


AELUROIDEA.

This section includes the Cat family (_Felidae_); the Hyaenas
(_Hyaenidae_); two families unknown in India, viz. the
_Cryptoproctidae_ and the _Protelidae_; and the Civet family
(_Viverridae_).


_FELIDAE--THE CAT FAMILY_.

This family contains the typical carnivores. There is in them
combined the greatest power of destruction, accompanied by the
simplest mechanism for producing it. All complications of dentition
and digestion disappear. Here are the few scissor-like teeth with
the enormous canines, the latter for holding and piercing the life
out of their prey, the former for chopping up the flesh into suitable
morsels for swallowing. Then the stomach is a simple sac, undivided
into compartments, and the intestine is short, not more than three
times the length of the body, instead of being some twenty times
longer, as in some herbivores. This family has the smallest number
of molars, a class of tooth which would indeed be useless, for the
construction of the feline jaw precludes the possibility of grinding,
and therefore a flat-crowned tuberculous tooth would be out of place.
As I have before described it, the jaw of a tiger is incapable of
lateral motion. The condyle of the lower jaw is so broad, and fits
so accurately into its socket, the glenoid cavity, that there can
be no departure from the up and down scissor-like action. The true
Cats have, therefore, only one molar on each side of each jaw; those
in the upper jaw being merely rudimentary, and placed almost at right
angles to the rest of the teeth, and seem apparently of little use;
those of the lower jaw are large and trenchant, cutting against the
edge of the third upper premolar.

[Illustration: Skull of Tiger (side view).]

It may interest my readers to know which are premolars and which are
molars. This can be decided only by dissection of the jaw of a young
animal. True molars only appear as the animal approaches the adult
stage. They are never shed, as are all the rest of the teeth, commonly
called milk teeth. The deciduous or milk teeth are the incisors,
canines, and premolars; they drop out and are replaced, and behind
the last premolar comes up the permanent molar.

Another peculiar feature of the Cat family is the power of sheathing
their talons. Claws to a cat are of as great importance to him in
the securing of his prey as are his teeth. The badger is a digger,
Hodge, who carries his mattock on his shoulder; but the feline is
the free-lance whose sword must be kept keen in its scabbard, so by
a peculiar arrangement of muscles the points of the claws are kept
off the ground, while the animal treads noiselessly on soft pads.
Otherwise by constant abrasion they would get so blunted as to fail
in their penetrating and seizing power. I give here an illustration
of the mechanism of the feline claw. In the upper sketch the claw
is retracted or sheathed; in the lower it is protruded as in the act
of striking.

[Illustration: Tendons of Tiger's toe.]

[Illustration: Tiger's auditory apparatus.]

The senses of hearing and smell are much developed, and the bulb of
the ear (_bulla tympani_) is here found of the largest dimensions.
I have once before alluded to this in writing of the bears, in whom
this arrangement is deficient. I give here a section of the auditory
apparatus. I do not know whether the engraver has effectually
rendered my attempt at conveying an idea, based as it is on
dissections by Professor Flower; but if he has failed I think the
fault lies in the shakiness of my hand in attempting the fine shading
after nearly breaking a saw and losing my temper over a very tough
old skull which I divided before commencing my illustration. The
great cavity is the _bulla tympani_ or bulb of the ear; _a m_ is the
_auditory meatus_ or external hole of the ear. On looking into a dry
skull the passage seems to be of no great depth, nor can an instrument
be passed directly from the outside into the great tympanic cavity,
the hindrance being a wall of bone, _s_, the _septum_ which divides
the _bulla_ into two distinct chambers, the reason for which is not
very clear, except that one may suppose it to be in some measure for
acoustic purposes, as all animals with this development are quick
of hearing. The communication between the two chambers lies in a
narrow slit over the _septum_, the Eustachian tube, _e_, being on
the outside of the _septum_ and between it and the tympanum or ear
drum, _t_.

The above are the chief characteristics of the family. For the rest
we may notice that they have but a rudimentary clavicle imbedded
among the muscles; the limbs are comparatively short, but immensely
muscular; the body lithe and active; the foot-fall noiseless; the
tongue armed with rough papillae, which enables them to rasp the
flesh off bones, and their vision is adapted for both night and day.

None of them are gregarious, as in the case of dogs and wolves. One
hears sometimes of a limited number of lions and tigers being seen
together, but in most cases they belong to one family, of which the
junior members have not been "turned off on their own hook" as yet.


_GENUS FELIS_.


NO. 200. FELIS LEO.
_The Lion_ (_Jerdon's No. 103_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Sher-babbar_, _Singh_, _Unthia-bagh_.

HABITAT.--Guzerat and Central India.

[Illustration: _Felis leo_ (Indian variety).]

DESCRIPTION.--The lion is almost too well known to need description,
and there is little difference between the Asiatic and African animal.
It may, however, be generally described as being distinguished from
other Cats by its uniform tawny colour, flatter skull, which gives
it a more dog-like appearance, the shaggy mane of the male, and by
the tufted tail of both sexes.

SIZE.--From nose to insertion of tail, 6 to 6-1/2 feet; tail, 2-1/2
to 3 feet; height, 3-1/2 feet.

The weight of one measured by Captain Smee, 8 feet 9-1/2 inches, was
(excluding the entrails) thirty-five stone. This must be the one
alluded to by Jerdon, but he does not state the extraction of the
viscera, which would add somewhat to the weight.

Young lions when born are invariably spotted; and Professor Parker
states that there were in the Zoological Gardens in 1877 three lions
which were born in the menagerie about ten years previously, and
which showed "indistinct, though perfectly evident, spots of a
slightly darker tawny than the general ground-tint on the belly and
flanks." He adds: "This is also the case with the puma, and it looks
very much as if all the great Cats were descended from a spotted
ancestor." The more dog-like head of the lion is well known to all
who have studied the physiognomy of the Cats, and I have not only
noticed it in drawing the animal, but have seen it alluded to in the
writings of others. It was not, however, till lately that I had an
opportunity of comparing the skulls of the lion and tiger in the
Calcutta Museum, and I am indebted to Mr. Cockburn of the museum,
not only for the trouble he took in getting out the various skulls,
but for his assistance in pointing out certain peculiarities known
to him, but of which I was at the time ignorant. That the skull of
the lion is flatter than, and wants the bold curve of, those of the
tiger, leopard and jaguar, is a well-known fact, but what Mr.
Cockburn pointed out to me was the difference in the maxillary and
nasal sutures of the face. A glance at two skulls placed side by side
would show at once what I mean. It would be seen that the nasal bones
of the tiger run up higher than those of the lion, the apices of whose
nasal and maxillary sutures are on a level. On leaving the museum
I compared the tiger skulls in my possession with accurate anatomical
drawings which I have of the osteology of the lion, and the result
was the same. It is said that there is also a difference in the
infra-orbital foramen of the two animals, but this I have failed to
detect as yet, though asserted by De Blainville in his magnificent
work on osteology ('Osteographie').

From all that has been written of the African and Indian lions I
should say that the tiger was the more formidable of the two, as he
is, I believe, superior in size. About twenty-two years ago my
attention was drawn to this subject by the perusal of Mr. Blyth's
article on the _Felidae_ in the old _India Sporting Review_ of
1856-57. If I am not mistaken there was at that time (1861) a fine
skeleton of a lion in the museum, as well as those of several tigers,
which I measured. I had afterwards opportunities of observing and
comparing skeletons of the two animals in various museums in Europe,
though not in my own country, for my stay in England on each occasion
of furlough was brief, and in almost every instance I found the tiger
the larger of the two. The book in which I recorded my observations,
and which also contained a number of microscopic drawings of marine
infusoria, collected during a five months' voyage, was afterwards
lost, so I cannot now refer to my notes.

I believe there was once a case of a fair fight between a well-matched
lion and tiger in a menagerie (Edmonds's, I think). The two, by the
breaking of a partition, got together, and could not be separated.
The duel resulted in the victory of the tiger, who killed his
opponent.

The lion seems to be dying out in India, and it is now probably
confined only to Guzerat and Cutch. I have not been an attentive
reader of sporting magazines of late years, and therefore I cannot
call to mind any recent accounts of lion-killing in India, if any
such have been recorded. At the commencement of this century lions
were to be found in the North-West and in Central India, including
the tract of country now termed the Central Provinces. In 1847 or
1848 a lioness was killed by a native shikari in the Dumoh district.
Dr. Spry, in his 'Modern India,' states that, when at Saugor in the
Central Provinces in 1837, the skin of a full-grown male lion was
brought to him, which had been shot by natives in the neighbourhood.
He also mentions another lioness shot at Rhylee in the Dumoh district
in 1834, of which he saw the skin. Jerdon says that tolerably
authentic intelligence was received of the presence of lions near
Saugor in 1856; and whilst at Seonee, within the years 1857 to 1864,
I frequently heard the native shikaris speak of having seen a tiger
_without stripes_, which may have been of the present species. The
indistinct spots on the lion's skin (especially of young lions), to
which I have before alluded, were noticed in the skin of the lioness
shot at Dumoh in 1847. The writer says: "when you place it in the
sun and look sideways at it, some very faint spots (the size of a
shilling or so) are to be seen along the belly."

Lions pair off at each season, and for the time they are together
they show great attachment to each other, but the male has to fight
for his spouse, who bestows herself on the victor. They then live
together till the young are able to shift for themselves. The lioness
goes with young about fifteen or sixteen weeks, and produces from
two to six at a litter. But there is great mortality among young lions,
especially about the time when they are developing their canine teeth.
This has been noticed in menageries, confirming a common Arab
assertion. In the London Zoological Gardens, during the last twenty
years, there has been much mortality among the lion cubs by a
malformation of the palate. It is a curious fact that lions breed
more readily in travelling menageries than in stationary ones.


NO. 201. FELIS TIGRIS.
_The Tiger_ (_Jerdon's No. 104_).

NATIVE NAME.--_Bagh_, _Sher_, Hindi; _Sela-vagh_, _Go-vagh_,
Bengali; _Wuhag_, Mahrathi; _Nahar_ in Bundelkund and Central India;
_Tut_ of the hill people of Bhagulpore; _Nongya-chor_ in Gorukpore;
_Puli_ in Telegu and Tamil; also _Pedda-pulli_ in Telegu;
_Parain-pulli_ in Malabar; _Huli_ in Caranese; _Tagh_ in Tibet;
_Suhtong_ in Lepcha; _Tukh_ in Bhotia.

These names are according to Jerdon. _Bagh_ and _Sher_ all Indian
sportsmen are familiar with. The Gonds of the Central Provinces call
it _Pullial_, which has an affinity with the southern dialects.

HABITAT.--The tiger, as far as we are concerned, is known throughout
the Indian peninsula and away down the eastern countries to the
Malayan archipelago. In Ceylon it is not found, but it extends to
the Himalayas, and ranges up to heights of 6000 to 8000 feet.
Generally speaking it is confined to Asia, but in that continent it
has a wide distribution. It has been found as far north as the island
of Saghalien, which is bisected by N. L. 50 degrees. This is its
extreme north-eastern limit, the Caspian Sea being its westerly
boundary. From parallel 50 degrees downwards it is found in many
parts of the highlands of central Asia.

[Illustration: Head of Tiger.]

DESCRIPTION.--A large heavy bodied Cat, much developed in the
fore-quarters, with short, close hair of a bright rufous ground tint
from every shade of pale yellow ochre to burnt sienna, with black
stripes arranged irregularly and seldom in two individuals alike,
the stripes being also irregular in form, from single streaks to
loops and broad bands. In some the brows and cheeks are white, and
in all the chin, throat, breast, and belly are pure white. All parts,
however, whether white or rufous, are equally pervaded by the black
stripes. The males have prolonged hairs extending from the ears round
the cheeks, forming a ruff, or whiskers as they are sometimes called,
although the true whiskers are the labial bristles. The pupil of the
tiger's eye is round, and not vertical, as stated by Jerdon.

SIZE.--Here we come to a much-vexed question, on which there is much
divergence of opinion, and the controversy will never be decided
until sportsmen have adopted a more correct system of measurement.
At present the universal plan is to measure the animal as it lies
on the ground, taking the tape from the tip of the nose to the end
of the tail. I will undertake that no two men will measure the same
tiger with equal results if the body be at all disturbed between the
two operations. If care be not taken to raise the head so as to bring
the plane of the skull in a line with the vertebrae, the downward
deflection will cause increased measurement. Let any one try this
on the next opportunity, or on the dead body of a cat. Care should
be taken in measuring that the head be raised, so that the top of
the skull be as much as possible in a line with the vertebrae. A stake
should be then driven in at the nose and another close in at the root
of the tail, and the measurement taken between the two stakes, and
not round the curves. The tail, which is an unimportant matter, but
which in the present system of measurement is a considerable factor,
should be measured and noted separately. I am not a believer in tails
(or tales), and have always considered that they should be excluded
from measurements except as an addition. I spoke of this in 'Seonee'
in the following terms: "If all tigers were measured honestly, a
twelve-foot animal would never be heard of. All your big fellows are
measured from stretched skins, and are as exaggerated as are the
accounts of the dangers incurred in killing them--at least in many
cases. But even the true method of measuring the unskinned animal
is faulty; it is an apparent fact that a tail has very little to do
with the worthiness of a creature, otherwise our bull-dogs would have
their caudal appendages left in peace. Now every shikari knows that
there may be a heavy tiger with a short tail and a light bodied one
with a long tail. Yet the measurement of each would be equal, and
give no criterion as to the size of the brute. Here's this tiger of
yours; I call him a heavy one, twenty-eight inches round the fore-arm,
and big in every way, yet his measurement does not sound large (it
was 9 feet 10 inches), and had he six inches more tail he would gain
immensely by it in reputation. The biggest panther I ever shot had
a stump only six inches long; and according to the usual system of
measuring he would have read as being a very small creature indeed."
Tails do vary. Sir Walter Elliot was a very careful observer, and
in his comparison of the two largest males and two largest females,
killed between 1829 and 1833, out of 70 to 80 specimens, it will be
seen that the largest animal in each sex had the shortest tail:--

---------------------------------------------------------------
| Adult Male. | Adult Female.
------------------------+-------------------+------------------
| ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in.
Length of head and body | 6 2 | 5 6 | 5 3-1/2 | 5 2
| | | |
Length of tail | 3 1-1/2 | 3 3 | 2 11 | 3 2
|---------+---------|---------|--------
| 9 3-1/2 | 8 9 | 8 2-1/2 | 8 4
---------------------------------------------------------------

Campbell, in his notes to 'The Old Forest-Ranger,' gives the
dimensions of a tiger of 9 ft. 5 in. of which the tail was only 2
ft. 10 in. From the other detailed measurements it must have been
an enormous tiger. The number of caudal vertebrae in the tiger and
lion should be twenty-six. I now regret that I did not carefully
examine the osteology of all short-tailed tigers which I have come
across, to see whether they had the full complement of vertebrae.
The big tiger in the museum is short by the six terminal joints =
three inches. This may have occurred during life, as in the case of
the above-quoted panther; anyhow the tail should, I think, be thrown
out of the calculation. Now as to the measurement of the head and
body, I quite acknowledge that there must be a different standard
for the sportsman and for the scientific naturalist. For the latter
the only reliable data are derived from the bones. Bones cannot err.
Except in very few abnormal conditions the whole skeleton is in
_accurate_ proportion, and it has lately struck me that from a
certain measurement of the skull a true estimate might be formed of
the length of the skeleton, and approximately the size of the animal
over the muscles. I at first thought of taking the length of the skull
by a craniometer, and seeing what portion of the total length to the
posterior edge of the sacrum it would be, but I soon discarded the
idea on account of the variation in the supra-occipital process.

[Illustration: Tiger's skull (under part).]

I then took the palatal measurement, from the outer edge of the border
in which the incisors are set to the anterior inside edge of the
brain-hole, or foramen magnum, and I find that this standard is
sufficiently accurate, and is 5.50 of the length taken from the tip
of the premaxillaries to the end of the sacrum. Therefore the length
of this portion of any tiger's skull multiplied by 5.50 will give
the measurement of the head and body of the skeleton.

For the purpose of working out these figures I applied to all my
sporting friends for measurements of their largest skulls, with a
view to settling the question about tigers exceeding eleven feet.
The museum possesses the skeleton of a tiger which was considered
one of the largest known, the cranial measurement of whose skull is
14.50 inches, but the Maharajah of Cooch Behar showed me one of his
skulls which exceeded it, being 15 inches. Amongst others I wrote
to Mr. J. Shillingford of Purneah, and he most kindly not only drew
up for me a tabular statement of the dimensions of the finest skulls
out of his magnificent collection, but sent down two for my
inspection. Now in the long-waged war of opinion regarding the size
of tigers I have always kept a reserved attitude, for if I have never
myself killed, or have seen killed by others, a tiger exceeding ten
feet, I felt that to be no reason for doubting the existence of tigers
of eleven feet in length vouched for by men of equal and in some cases
greater experience, although at the same time I did not approve of
a system of measurement which left so much to conjecture.

There is much to be said on both sides, and, as much yet remains to
be investigated, it is to be hoped that the search after the truth
will be carried on in a judicial spirit. I have hitherto been ranged
on the side of the moderate party; still I was bound to respect the
opinion of Sir Joseph Fayrer, who, as not only as a sportsman but
as an anatomist, was entitled to attention; and from my long personal
acquaintance I should implicitly accept any statement made by him.
Dr. Jerdon, whom I knew intimately, was not, I may safely assert,
a great tiger shikari, and he based his opinion on evidence and with
great caution. Mr. J. Shillingford, from whom I have received the
greatest assistance in my recent investigations, and who has
furnished me with much valuable information, is on the other hand
the strenuous assertor of the existence of the eleven-foot tiger,
and with the magnificent skulls before me, which he has sent down
from Purneah, I cannot any longer doubt the size of the Bengal tiger,
and that the animals to which they belonged were eleven feet,
_measured sportsman fashion_--that is round the curves. The larger
of the two skulls measures 15.25 inches taken between two squares,
placed one at each end; a tape taken from the edge of the
premaxillaries over the curve of the head gives 17.37 inches; the
width across the zygomatic arches, 10.50.[10] The palatal
measurement, which is the test I proposed for ascertaining the length
of the skeleton, is 12.25, which would give 5 feet 7.37 inches; about
3-3/4 inches larger than the big skeleton in the Museum. This may
seem very small for the body of an animal which is supposed to measure
eleven feet, but I must remind my readers that the bones of the
biggest tiger look very small when denuded of the muscles; and the
present difficulty I have to contend with is how to strike the average
rate for the allowance to be added to skeleton for muscles, the chief
stumbling block being the system which has hitherto included the tail
in the measurement. It all tigers had been measured as most other
animals (except felines) are--i.e. head and body together, and then
the tail separately--I might have had some more reliable data to go
upon; but I hope in time to get some from such sportsmen as are
interested in the subject. I have shown that the tail is not
trustworthy as a proportional part of the total length; but from such
calculations as I have been able to make from the very meagre
materials on which I have to base them, I should allow one 2.50th
part of the total length of skeleton for curves and muscles.

[Footnote 10: At Mr. Shillingford's request, I made over this skull
to the Calcutta Museum.]

In addition to a careful study of De Blainville's 'Osteographie,'
where the bones are figured in large size to scale, I have made many
careful measurements of skulls belonging to myself and friends, and
also of the skulls and skeletons in the Calcutta Museum (for most
willing and valuable assistance in which I am indebted to Mr. J.
Cockburn, who, in order to test my calculations, went twice over the
ground); and I have adopted the following formula as a tentative
measure. I quite expect to be criticised, but if the crude idea can
be improved on by others I shall be glad.

I now give a tabular statement of four out of many calculations made,
but I must state that in fixing an arbitrary standard of 36 inches
for tail, I have understated the mark, for the tails of most tigers
exceed that by an inch or two, though, on the other hand, some are
less.

_Formula_.--Measure from the tip of the premaxillaries or outer
insertion of the front teeth (incisors) along the palate to the
nearest inner edge of the foramen magnum. Multiply the result by 5.50.
This will give the length of the skeleton, excluding the tail. Divide
this result by 2.50, and add the quotient to the length for the
proportionate amount of muscles and gain in curves. Add 36 inches
for tail.

----------------------------------------------------------------
| Palatal | Add one | |
| measure- | 2.50th | |
| ment | part of | |
| multi- | last for | |
| plied | curves | |
| by | and | | Total.
| 5.50. | muscles. | Tail. | inches ft. in.
-------------------+----------+----------+-------+--------------
Mr. Shillingford's | 67.37 | 26.94 | 36.00 | 130.31 10 10
tiger | | | |
| | | |
Big tiger in | 63.52 | 25.40 | 36.00 | 124.92 10 4-3/4
museum | | | |
| | | |
Maharajah of Cooch | 66.00 | 26.40 | 36.00 | 128.40 10 8.4
Behar's tiger | | | |
| | | |
A medium-sized one | 55.75 | 23.10 | 36.00 | 116.85 9 8-3/4
of my own | | | |
----------------------------------------------------------------
Remarks: Mr. Shillingford's tiger's tail was over 3 ft. 2 in., which
would make it 11 ft. The Maharajah writes to me that his measured
on the ground 9 ft. 11 in. See further on.
----------------------------------------------------------------

It will be seen that my calculation is considerably out in the Cooch
Behar tiger, so I asked the Maharajah to tell me, from the appearance
of the skull, whether the animal was young or old. He sent it over
to me, and I have no hesitation in saying that it was that of a young
tiger, who, in another year, might have put on the extra nine inches;
the parietal sutures, which in the old tiger (as in Mr.
Shillingford's specimens) are completely obliterated, are in this
one almost open. It must be remembered that the bones of the skull
do not grow in the same ratio to the others, and that they attain
their full size before those of the rest of the body. Therefore it
is only in the case of the adult that accurate results can be
calculated upon. Probably I have not done wisely in selecting a
portion of the skull as a standard--a bone of the body, such as a
femur or humerus might be more reliable--but I was driven to it by
circumstances. Sportsmen, as a rule, do not keep anything but the
skull, and for general purposes it would have been of no use my giving
as a test what no one could get hold of except in a museum.

I have always understood that the tiger of the plains grew to a
greater size, that is in length, than the tiger of hilly country.
I have never shot a tiger in Lower Bengal, therefore I cannot judge
of the form of the beast, whether he be more lanky or not. If an
eleven-foot Bengal tiger be anything like as robust in proportion
as our Central Indian ones, I should say he was an enormous creature,
but I believe the Central and Southern tiger to be the heavier one,
and this is borne out by an illustration given by Mr. Shillingford
in one of his able letters, which have called forth so much hostile
criticism. He compares one of his largest with the measurement of
a Southern India tiger:--

--------------------------------------------------------
Locality of Tiger. | Purneah | Southern India
Length. | 11 ft. 0 in. | 10 ft. 2 in.
Girth of Chest. | 4 ft. 6 in. | 6 ft. 1 in.
Girth of Head. | 2 ft. 10 in. | 3 ft. 5 in.
Tail. | 3 ft. 4 in. | 3 ft. 1 in.
Round Fore-arm. | 2 ft. 2 in. | 2 ft. 10 in.
Height. | 3 ft. 7 in. | 3 ft. 9 in.
Total of ft. and in. | 27 ft. 5 in. | 29 ft. 4 in.
--------------------------------------------------------

The shorter tiger has an advantage of nearly two feet in all-round
measurement.

Sir Joseph Fayrer has also been called in question for his belief
in twelve feet tigers, but what he says is reasonable enough. "The
tiger should be measured from the nose along the spine to the tip
of the tail, as he lies dead on the spot where he fell, before the
skin is removed. _One that is ten feet by this measurement is large,
and the full-grown male does not often exceed this_, though no doubt
larger individuals (males) are occasionally seen, and I have been
informed by Indian sportsmen of reliability that they have seen and
killed tigers over twelve feet in length." ('Royal Tiger of Bengal,'
p. 29).

Sir Joseph Fayrer in a letter to _Nature_, June 27, 1878, brings
forward the following evidence of large tigers shot by sportsmen
whose names are well known in India.

Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau killed a tiger at Muteara in Oude, in 1861,
over 12 feet; the skin when removed measured 13 feet 5 inches.

Sir George Yule has heard once of a 12-foot tiger fairly measured,
but 11 feet odd inches is the largest he has killed, _and that twice
or thrice_.

Colonel Ramsay (Commissioner) killed in Kumaon a tiger measuring 12
feet.

Sir Joseph Fayrer has seen and killed tigers over 10 feet, and one
in Purneah 10 feet 8 inches, in 1869.

Colonel J. Sleeman does not remember having killed a tiger _over_
10 feet 6 inches in the skin.

Colonel J. MacDonald has killed one 10 feet 4 inches.

The Honourable R. Drummond, C.S., killed a tiger 11 feet 9 inches,
measured before being skinned.

Colonel Shakespeare killed one 11 feet 8 inches.

However, conceding that all this proves that tigers do reach
occasionally to eleven and even twelve feet, it does not take away
from the fact that the average length is between nine and ten feet,
and anything up to eleven feet is rare, and up to twelve feet still
more so.[11]

[Footnote 11: Since writing the above I have to thank "Meade Shell"
for the measurements of the skull of a tiger 11 ft. 6 in. The palatal
measurement is 12 inches, which, according to my formula, would give
only 10 ft. 8 in.; but it must be remembered that I have allowed only
3 ft. for the tail, whereas such a tiger would probably have been
from 3-1/2 to 4 ft., which would quite bring it up to the length
vouched for. The tail of a skeleton of a much smaller tiger in the
museum measures 3 ft. 3-1/2 in., which with skin and hair would
certainly have been 3-1/2 ft. Until sportsmen begin to measure bodies
and tails separately it will, I fear, be a difficult matter to fix
on any correct formula.--R. A. S. See Appendix _C_.]

VARIETIES OF THE TIGER.--It is universally acknowledged that there
is but one species of tiger. There are, however, several marked
varieties. The distinction between the Central Asian and the Indian
tiger is unmistakable. The coat of the Indian animal is of smooth,
short hair; that of the Northern one of a deep furry pelage, of a
much richer appearance.

There is an idea which is also to be found stated as a fact in some
works on natural history, that the Northern tiger is of a pale colour
with few stripes, which arises from Swinhoe having so described some
specimens from Northern China; but I have not found this to be
confirmed in those skins from Central Asia which I have seen. Shortly
before leaving London, in 1878, Mr. Charles Reuss, furrier, in Bond
Street, showed me a beautiful skin with deep soft hair, abundantly
striped on a rich burnt sienna ground, admirably relieved by the pure
white of the lower parts. That light-coloured specimens are found
is true, but I doubt whether they are more common than the others.
Of the varieties in India it is more difficult to speak. Most
sportsmen recognise two (some three)--the stout thick-set tiger of
hilly country, and the long-bodied lankier one of the grass jungles
in the plains. Such a division is in consonance with the ordinary
laws of nature, which we also see carried out in the thick-set
muscular forms of the human species in mountain tracts.

Some writers, however, go further, and attempt subdivisions more or
less doubtful. I knew the late Captain J. Forsyth most intimately
for years. We were in the same house for some time. I took an interest
in his writings, and helped to illustrate his last work, and I can
bear testimony to the general accuracy of his observations and the
value of his book on the Highlands of Central India; but in some
things he formed erroneous ideas, and his three divisions, based on
the habits of the tiger, is, I think, open to objection, as tending
to create an idea of at least two distinct varieties.

Native shikaris, he says, recognise two kinds--the _Lodhia Bagh_ and
the _Oontia Bagh_ (which last I may remind my readers is one of the
names of the lion). The former is the _game-killing_ tiger, retired
in his habits, living chiefly among the hills, retreating readily
from man. "He is a light-made beast, very active and enduring, and
from this, as well as his shyness, generally difficult to bring to
bag."

I grant his shyness and comparative harmlessness (I once met one
almost face to face)--and the nature of the ground he inhabits
increases the difficulty in securing him--but I do not think he
physically differs from his brother in the cattle districts. Mr.
Sanderson says one of the largest tigers he had killed was a pure
game-killer.

"The cattle-lifter again," says Forsyth, "is usually an older and
heavier animal (called _Oontia Bagh_, from his faintly striped coat,
resembling the colour of a camel), very fleshy and indisposed to
severe exertion."

His third division is the man-eater. However, this is merely a
classification on the habits of the same animal. I think most Central
India sportsmen will agree with me when I say that many a young tiger
is a cattle-eater, with a rich coloured hide, although it often
happens that an old tiger of the first division, when he finds his
powers for game failing by reason of age or increased bulk, transfers
himself from the borders of the forest to the vicinity of grazing
lands and villages, and he ultimately may come into the third
division by becoming a man-eater. So that the _Lodhia_ becomes the
_Oontia_ (for very old tigers become lighter in colour), and may end
by being an _Adam-khor_, or man-eater. Tigers roam a great deal at
times, and if in their wanderings they come to a suitable locality
with convenience of food and water, they abide there, provided there
be no occupant with a prior claim and sufficient power to dispute
the intrusion. We had ample proof of this at Seonee. Close to the
station, that is, within a short ride, were several groups of hills
which commanded the pasture lands of the town. Many a tiger has been
killed there, the place of the slain one being occupied ere long by
another. On the other hand, if a tiger be accommodated with lodgings
to his liking, he will stay there for years, roaming a certain radius,
but returning to his home; and it is the knowledge of this that so
often enables the hunter to compass his destruction. As long
therefore as there are human habitations, with their usual adjuncts
of herds and flocks, within a dozen miles of the jungle tiger's haunts,
so long there will always be the transition from the game-killer to
the cattle-lifter and the man-eater. Colour and striping must also
be thrown out of the question, for no two individuals of any variety
agree, and the characteristics of shade and marking are common to
all kinds. The only reliable data therefore are derived from
measurements, and from these it may be proved that the grass-jungle
tiger of Bengal, though the longer animal, is yet inferior in all
round measurement and probably in weight to the tiger of hilly
country--see Mr. Shillingford's comparison quoted by me above. Let
also any one compare the following measurements of one given by
Colonel Walter Campbell with a tiger of equal length shot in the
grassy plains of Bengal:--

ft. in.
Length from point of nose to end of tail . . . . . 9 5
Ditto of tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 10
Height from heel to shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2
Extreme length from shoulder to point of toe . . . 3 11
From elbow to point of toe . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0
Girth of body just behind the shoulder . . . . . . 5 3
Ditto of forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7
Ditto of neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0
Circumference of head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3

This is a remarkably short-tailed tiger. If the concurrence of
evidence establishes the difference beyond doubt, then we may say
that there are two varieties in India--the hill tiger, _Felis tigris,
var. montanus_; and the other, inhabiting the alluvial plains of
great rivers, _Felis tigris, var. fluviatilis_. Dr. Anderson says
he has examined skulls and skins of those inhabiting the hill ranges
of Yunnan, and can detect no difference from the ordinary Indian
species.

The tigress goes with young for about fifteen weeks, and produces
from two to five at a birth. I remember once seeing four perfectly
formed cubs, which would have been born in a day or two, cut from
a tigress shot by my brother-in-law Col. W. B. Thomson in the hills
adjoining the station of Seonee. I had got off an elephant, and,
running up the glen on hearing the shots, came unpleasantly close
to her in her dying throes. When about to bring forth, the tigress
avoids the male, and hides her young from him. The native shikaris
say that the tiger kills the young ones if he finds them. The mother
is a most affectionate parent as a rule, and sometimes exhibits
strange fits of jealousy at interference with her young. I heard an
instance of this some years ago from my brother, Mr. H. B. Sterndale,
who, as one of the Municipal Commissioners of Delhi, took a great
interest in the collection of animals in the Queen's Gardens there.
Both tiger and leopard cubs had been born in the gardens, and the
mother of the latter shewed no uneasiness at her offspring being
handled by strangers as they crept through the bars and strayed
about; but one day, a tiger cub having done the same, the tigress
exhibited great restlessness, and, on the little one's return, in
a sudden accession of jealous fury she dashed her paw on it and killed
it. I am indebted to Mr. Shillingford for a long list of tigresses
with cubs killed during the years 1866 to 1880. Out of 53 cubs (18
mothers) 29 were males and 22 females, the sex of two cubs not being
given. This tends to prove that there are an equal number of each
sex born--in fact here the advantage is on the side of the males.
I have heard it asserted that tigresses are more common, and native
shikaris account for it by saying that the male tiger kills the cubs
of his own sex; but I have not seen anything to justify this assertion,
or the fact of there being a preponderance of females. Mr. Sanderson,
however, writes: "Male and female cubs appear to be in about equal
proportions. How it is that amongst mature animals tigresses
predominate so markedly I am unable to say."

Tigresses have young at all seasons of the year, and they breed
apparently only once in three years, which is about the time the cubs
remain with their mother.

For the following interesting memorandum I have to thank Mr.
Shillingford:--

Feet.
"Cubs one year old measure . . . . . . Males 4-1/2 to 5-1/2
Females 4 to 5
Ditto two years old . . . . . . . . . Males 5-1/2 to 7
Females 5 to 6-1/2
Ditto three years old . . . . . . . . Males 7 to 8-1/2
Females 6-1/2 to 7-1/2

"When they reach three years of age they lose their 'milk' canines,
which are replaced by the permanent fangs, and at this period the
mother leaves them to cater for themselves."

The cubs are interesting pets if taken from the mother very young.
I have reared several, but only kept one for any length of time. I
have given a full description of Zalim and his ways in 'Seonee.' He
was found by my camp followers with another in a nullah, and brought
to me. The other cub died, but Zalim lived to grow up into a very
fine tiger, and was sent to England. I never allowed him to taste
raw flesh. He had a little cooked meat every day, and as much milk
as he liked to drink, and he throve well on this diet. When he was
too large to be allowed to roam about unconfined I had a stout
buffalo-leather collar made for his neck, and he was chained to a
stump near the cook-room door. With grown-up people he was perfectly
tame, but I noticed he got restless when children approached him,
and so made up my mind to part with him before he did any mischief.

I know nothing of the habits of the tiger of the grass plains, but
those of the hill tiger are very interesting, the cattle lifter
especially, as he is better known to men. Each individual has his
special idiosyncrasy. I wrote of this once before as follows:
"Strange though it may seem to the English reader that a tiger should
have any special character beyond the general one for cruelty and
cunning, it is nevertheless a fact that each animal has certain
peculiarities of temperament which are well known to the villagers
in the neighbourhood. They will tell you that such a one is daring
and rash; another is cunning and not to be taken by any artifice;
that one is savage and morose; another is mild and harmless. There
are few villages in the wilder parts of the Seonee and Mandla
districts without an attendant tiger, which undoubtedly does great
damage in the way of destroying cattle, but which avoids the human
inhabitants of the place. So accustomed do the people get to their
unwelcome visitor that we have known the boys of a village turn a
tiger out of quarters which were reckoned too close, and pelt him
with stones. On one occasion two of the juvenile assailants were
killed by the animal they had approached too near. Herdsmen in the
same way get callous to the danger of meddling with so dreadful a
creature, and frequently rush to the rescue of their cattle when
seized. On a certain occasion one out of a herd of cattle was attacked
close to our camp, and rescued single-handed by it's owner, who laid
his heavy iron-bound staff across the tiger's back; and, on our
rushing out to see what was the matter, we found the man coolly
dressing the wounds of his cow, muttering to himself: 'The robber,
the robber! My last cow, and I had five of them!' He did not seem
to think he had done anything wonderful, and seemed rather surprised
that we should suppose that he was going to let his last heifer go
the way of all the others.

"It is fortunate for these dwellers in the backwoods that but a small
percentage of tigers are man-eaters, perhaps not five per cent.,
otherwise village after village would be depopulated; as it is the
yearly tale of lives lost is a heavy one."[12]

[Footnote 12: 'Seonee.']

Tigers are also eccentric in their ways, showing differences in
disposition under different circumstances. I believe that many a
shikari passes at times within a few yards of a tiger without knowing
it, the tendency of the animal being to crouch and hide until the
strange-looking two-legged beast has passed. The narrowest escape
I ever had is an instance. I had hunted a large tiger, well known
for the savageness of his disposition, on foot from ravine to ravine
on the banks of the Pench, one hot day in June, and, giving him no
rest, made sure of getting him about three o'clock in the afternoon.
He had been seen to slip into a large nullah, bordered on one side
by open country, a small water-course draining into it from the
fields; here was one large _beyr_ bush, behind which I wished to place
myself, but was persuaded by an old shikari of great local reputation
to move farther on. Hardly had we done so when our friend bounded
from under the bush and disappeared in a thicket, where we lost him.
Ten days after this he was killed by a friend and myself, and he
sustained his savage reputation by attacking the elephant without
provocation--a thing a tiger seldom does. I had hunted this animal
several times, and on one occasion saw him swim the Pench river at
one of its broadest reaches. It was the only time I had seen a tiger
swim, and it was interesting to watch him powerfully breasting the
stream with his head well up. Tigers swim readily, as is well known.
I believe it is not uncommon to see them take to the water in the
Sunderbunds; and a recent case may be remembered when two of them
escaped from the King of Oude's Menagerie, and one swam across the
Hooghly to the Botanical Gardens.

There has been some controversy about the way in which tigers kill
their prey. I am afraid I cannot speak definitely on the subject,
although I have on several occasions seen tigers kill oxen and ponies.
I do not think they have a uniform way of doing it, so much depends
upon circumstance--certain it is that they cannot smash in the head
of a buffalo with a stroke, as some writers make out, but yet I have
known them make strokes at the head, in a running fight, for instance,
between a buffalo and a tiger--in which the former got off--and in
the case of human beings. Of two men killed by the same tiger, one
had his skull fractured by a blow; the other, who was killed as we
were endeavouring to drive the tiger out of the village, was seized
by the loins. He died immediately; the man with the fractured skull
lingered some hours longer. Another case of a stroke at the head
happened once when I had tied out a pony for a tiger that would not
look at cows, over which I had sat for several successive nights.
A tiger and tigress came out, and the former made a rush at the _tattu_,
who met him with such a kick on the nose that he drew back much
astonished; the tigress then dashed at the pony, and I, wishing if
possible to save the plucky little animal's life, fired two barrels
into her, rolling her over just as she struck at his head. But it
was too late; the pony dropped at the blow and died--not from
concussion, however, but from loss of blood, for the jugular vein
had been cut open as though it had been done with a knife. So much
for the head stroke, which is, I may say, exceptional. As a general
rule I think the tiger bears down his victim by sheer weight, and
then, by some means which I should hesitate to define, although I
have seen it, the head is wrenched back, so as to dislocate the
vertebrae. One evening two cows were killed before me. I was going
to say the tiger sprang at one, but correct myself--it is not a spring,
but a rush on to the back of the animal; he seldom springs all fours
off the ground at once. I have never seen a tiger get off his hind
legs except in bounding over a fallen tree, or in and out of a ravine.
In this case he rushed on to the cow and bore it to the ground; there
was a violent struggle, and in the dusky light I could not tell
whether he used his mouth or paws in wrenching back the head, which
went with a crack. The thing was done in a minute, when he sprang
once more to his feet, and the second cow was hurled to the ground
in like manner. As his back was turned to me I fired somewhat hastily,
thinking to save the cow, but only wounded the tiger, which I lost.
Both the cows, however, had their necks completely broken. I cannot
now remember the position of the fang-marks in the throat. On another
occasion I came across five out of a herd that had been killed,
probably by young tigers; every one had the neck broken.

Mr. Sanderson says that herdsmen have described to him how they have
noticed the operation: "Clutching the bullock's fore-quarters with
his paws, one being generally over the shoulder, he seizes the throat
in his jaws from underneath and turns it upwards and over, sometimes
springing to the far side in doing so, to throw the bullock over and
give the wrench which dislocates its neck. This is frequently done
so quickly that the tiger, if timid, is in retreat again almost before
the herdsmen can turn round." This account seems reliable. A tiger
may seize by the nape in order to get a temporary purchase, but it
would be awkward for him to pull the head back far enough to snap
the vertebral column.

Now for a few remarks in conclusion. I have written more on the
subject than I intended. That tigers are carrion feeders is well
known, but that sometimes they prefer high meat to fresh I had only
proof of once. A tiger killed a mare and foal, on which he feasted
for three days; on the fourth nothing remaining but a very offensive
leg; we tied out a fine young buffalo calf for him within a yard or
two of the savoury joint. The tiger came during the night and took
away the leg, without touching the calf; and, devouring it, fell
asleep, in which condition we, having tracked him up the nullah,
found and killed him.

The tiger is not always monarch over all the beasts of the field.
He is positively afraid of the wild dog (_Cuon rutilans_), which
readily attacks him in packs. Then he often finds his match in the
wild boar. I have myself seen an instance of this, in which the tiger
was not only ripped to death, but had his chest-bone gnawed and
crushed, evidently after life was extinct.

Buffalos in herds hesitate not in attacking a tiger; and I saw one
instance of their saving their herdsman from a man-eater. My camp
was pitched on the banks of a stream under some tall trees. I had
made a _detour_ in order to try and kill this man-eater, and had sent
on a hill tent the night before. I was met in the morning by the
_khalasi_ in charge, with a wonderful story of the tiger having
rushed at him, but as the man was a romancer I disbelieved him. On
the other side of the stream was a gentle slope of turf and bushes,
rising gradually to a rocky hill. The slope was dotted with grazing
herds, and here and there a group of buffalos. Late in the afternoon
I heard some piercing cries from my people of "_Bagh! Bagh!_" The
cows stampeded, as they always do. A struggle was going on in the
bush, with loud cries of a human voice. The buffalos threw up their
heads, and, grunting loudly, charged down on the spot, and then in
a body went charging on through the brushwood. Other herdsmen and
villagers ran up, and a charpoy was sent for and the man brought into
the village. He was badly scratched, but had escaped any serious fang
wounds from his having, as he said, seen the tiger coming at him,
and stuffed his blanket into his open mouth, whilst he belaboured
him with his axe. Anyhow but for his buffalos he would have been a
dead man in three minutes more.


THE PARDS OR PANTHERS.

To these are commonly assigned the name of Leopard, which ought
properly to be restricted to the hunting leopard (_Felis jubata_),
to which we have also misappropriated the Indian name _Chita_, which
applies to all spotted cats, _Chita-bagh_ being spotted tiger. The
same term, derived from the adjective _chhita_, spotted or sprinkled,
applies in various forms to the other creatures, such as _Chital_,
the spotted deer (_Axis_), _Chita-bora_, a kind of speckled snake,
&c. _Leopardus_ or lion-panther was, without doubt, the name given
by the ancients to the hunting leopard, which was well known to them
from its extending into Africa and Arabia. Assuredly the prophet
Habakkuk spoke of the hunting chita when he said of the Chaldaeans:
"That bitter and hasty nation . . . their horses also are swifter
than the leopards," for the pard is not a swift animal, whereas the
speed of the other is well known.

The name was given to it by the ancients on the supposition that it
was a cross between the lion and the pard, from a fancied resemblance
to the former on account of the mane or ruff of hair possessed by
the hunting leopard. Apparently this animal must have been more
familiar to our remote ancestors than the pard, for the name has been
attached for centuries to the larger spotted Cats indiscriminately.
I have not time just now to attempt to trace the species of the leopard
which formerly graced the arms of the English kings, but I should
not be surprised if it were the guepard or chita. The old
representations were certainly attenuated enough; and the animal
must have been familiar to the crusaders, as we know it was before
them to the Romans.

Mr. Blyth, who speculated on the origin of the name, in one of his
able articles on the felines of India in the _India Sporting Review_
of April 1856, makes no allusion to the above nor to the probable
confusion that may have arisen in the middle ages over the spotted
Cats. Although the term leopard, as applied to panthers, has the
sanction of almost immemorable custom, I do not see why, in writing
on the subject, we should perpetuate the misnomer, especially as most
naturalists and sportsmen are now inclined to make the proper
distinction. I have always avoided the use of the term leopard,
except when speaking of the hunting chita, preferring to call the
others panthers.

Then again we come on disputed ground. Of panthers how many have we,
and how should they be designated? I am not going farther afield than
India in this discussion beyond alluding to the fact that the jaguar
of Brazil is almost identical with our pard as far as marking goes,
but is a stouter, shorter-tailed animal, which justifies his being
classed as a species; therefore we must not take superficial
colouring as a test, but class the black and common pards together;
the former, which some naturalists have endeavoured to made into a
separate species (_Felis melas_), being merely a variety of the
latter. They present the same characteristics, although Jerdon
states that the black is the smaller animal. They have been found
in Java to inhabit the same den, according to Professor Reinwardt
and M. Kuhl, and they inter-breed, as has been proved by the fact
that a female black pard has produced a black and a fulvous cub at
the same birth. This is noticed by Mr. Sanderson in his book, and
he got the information from the director of the Zoological Society's
Menagerie at Amsterdam. "Old Fogy," a constant contributor to the
old _India Sporting Review_, a good sportsman and naturalist, with
whom Blyth kept up a correspondence, wrote in October 1857 that, "in
a litter of four leopard cubs one was quite black; they all died,
but both the parents were of the ordinary colour and marking; they
were both watched at their cave, and at last shot, one with an arrow
through the heart. Near a hill village a black male leopard was often
seen and known to consort with an ordinary female. I have observed
them myself once, if not twice."

An observant sportsman, "Hawkeye," in one of his letters to the
_South of India Observer_, remarks that "on one occasion a gentleman
saw an old leopard accompanied by two of her offspring, one red, the
other black." He also says he has never known "of two black leopards
in company," but black pards have bred in zoological gardens. I am
told that cubs have been born in the Calcutta Garden, but they did
not live. General MacMaster, in his notes on Jerdon, makes the
pertinent remark: "If however black panthers are only accidental,
it is odd that no one has yet come on a black specimen of one of the
larger cats, _F. leo tigris_." I see no reason why such should not
yet be discovered; he was perhaps not aware that the jaguar of Brazil,
which comes next to the tiger, has been found black (_Felis nigra_
of Erxleben). A black tiger would be a prize. General MacMaster
relates that he once watched a fine black cat basking in the sun,
and noticed that in particular lights the animal exhibited most
plainly the regular brindled markings of the ordinary gray wild or
semi-wild cat. These markings were as black or blacker than the rest
of his hair. His mother was a half-wild gray brindle.

I think we have sufficient evidence that the black pard is merely
a variety of the common one, but now we come to the pards themselves,
and the question as to whether there are two distinct species or two
varieties; Blyth, Jerdon and other able naturalists, although fully
recognizing the differences, have yet hesitated to separate them,
and they still remain in the unsatisfactory relation to each other
of varieties. I feel convinced in my own mind that they are
sufficiently distinct to warrant their being classed, and
specifically named apart. It is not as I said before, that we should
go upon peculiarities of marking and colour, although these are
sufficiently obvious, but on their osteology and also the question
of interbreeding and production. Grant their relative sizes, one so
much bigger than the other, and the difference in colour and marking,
has it ever been known that out of a litter of several cubs by a female
of the larger kind, one of the smaller sort has been produced, or
_vice versa_? This is a question that yet remains for investigation.
My old district had both kinds in abundance, and I have had scores
of cubs, of both sorts, brought to me--cubs which could be
distinguished at a glance as to which kind they belonged to, but I
never remember any mixture of the two. As regards the difference in
appearance of the adults there can be no question. The one is a higher,
longer animal, with smooth shiny hair of a light golden fulvous, the
spots being clear and well defined, but, as is remarked by Sir Walter
Elliot, the strongest difference of character is in the skulls, those
of the larger pard being longer and more pointed, with a ridge running
along the occiput, much developed for the attachment of the muscles,
whereas the smaller pard has not only a rougher coat, the spots being
more blurred, but it is comparatively a more squat built animal, with
a rounder skull without the decided occipital ridge. There is a mass
of evidence on the point of distinctness--Sir Walter Elliot,
Horsfield, Hodgson, Sir Samuel Baker, Johnson (author of 'Field
Sports in India'), "Mountaineer," a writer in the _Bengal Sporting
Review_, even Blyth and Jerdon, all speak to the difference, and yet
no decided separation has been made. There is in fact too much
confusion and too many names. For the larger animal _Felis pardus_
is appropriate, and the _leopardus_ of Temminck, Schreber and others
is not. Therefore that remains; but what is the smaller one to be
called? I should say _Felis panthera_ which, being common to Asia
and Africa, was probably the panther of the Romans and Greeks. Jerdon
gives as a synonym _F. longicaudata_ (Valenciennes), but I find on
examination of the skulls of various species that _F. longicaudata_
has a complete bony orbit which places it in Gray's genus _Catolynx_,
and it is too small for our panther. We might then say that we have
the pard, the panther, and the leopard in India, and then we should
be strictly correct. Some sportsmen speak of a smaller panther which
Kinloch calls the third (second?) sort of panther, but this differs
in no respect from the ordinary one, save in size, and it is well
known that this species varies very much in this respect. I am not
singular in the views I now express. Years ago Colonel Sykes, who
was a well known naturalist, said of the pard: "It is a taller,
stronger, and slighter built animal than the next species, which I
consider the _panther_."

The skull of the pard in some degree resembles that of the jaguar,
which again is nearest the tiger, whereas that of the panther appears
to have some affinity to the restricted cats. In disposition all the
pards and panthers are alike sanguinary, fierce and incapable of
attachment. The tiger is tameable, the panther not so. I have had
some experience of the young of both, and have seen many others in
the possession of friends; and though they may, for a time, when young,
be amusing pets, their innate savageness sooner or later breaks out.
They are not even to be trusted with their own kind. I have known
one to turn on a comrade in a cage, kill and devour him, and some
of my readers may possibly remember an instance of this in the
Zoological Gardens at Lahore, when, in 1868, a pard one night killed
a panther which inhabited the same den, and ate a goodly portion of
him before dawn. They all show more ferocity than the tiger when
wounded, and a man-eating pard is far more to be dreaded than any
other man-eater, as will be seen farther on from the history of one
I knew.


NO. 202. FELIS PARDUS.
_The Pard_ (_Jerdon's No. 105_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Tendua_, _Chita_ or _Chita-bagh_, _Adnara_; Hindi,
_Honiga_; Canarese, _Asnea_; Mahratti, _Chinna puli_; Telegu,
_Burkal_; Gondi, _Bay-heera_; and _Tahr-hay_ in the Himalayas.

HABITAT.--Throughout India, Burmah, and Ceylon, and extending to the
Malayan Archipelago.

DESCRIPTION.--A clean, long limbed, though compact body; hair close
and short; colour pale fulvous yellow, with clearly defined spots
in rosettes; the head more tiger-like than the next species; the
skull is longer and more pointed, with a much developed occipital
ridge.

SIZE.--Head and body from 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 feet; tail from 30 to 38
inches.

This is a powerful animal and very fierce as a rule, though in the
case of a noted man-eater I have known it exhibit a curious mixture
of ferocity and abject cowardice. It is stated to be of a more
retiring disposition than the next species, but this I doubt, for
I have frequently come across it in the neighbourhood of villages
to which it was probably attracted by cattle. It may not have the
fearlessness or impudence of the panther, which will walk through
the streets of a town and seize and devour its prey in a garden
surrounded by houses, as I once remember, in the case of a pony at
Seonee, but it is nevertheless sufficiently bold to hang about the
outskirts of villages. Those who have seen this animal once would
never afterwards confuse it with what I would call the panther. There
is a sleekness about it quite foreign to the other, and a brilliancy
of skin with a distinctness of spots which the longer, looser hair
does not admit of. But with all these external differences I am aware
that there will be objection to classifying it as a separate species,
unless the osteological divergences can be satisfactorily
determined, and for this purpose it would be necessary to examine
a large series of authenticated skulls of the two kinds.

The concurrence of evidence as to the habits of this species is that
it is chiefly found in hilly jungles preying on wild animals, wild
pigs, and monkeys, but not unfrequently, as I know, haunting the
outskirts of villages for the sake of stray ponies and cattle. The
largest pard I have ever seen was shot by one of my own shikaris in
the act of stalking a pony near a village. I was mahseer-fishing close
by at the time, and had sent on the man, a little before dusk, to
a village a few miles off, to arrange for beating up a tiger early
next day. Jerdon says this is the kind most common in Bengal, but
he does not say in what parts of Bengal, and on what authority. I
have no doubt it abounds in Sontalia and Assam, and many other hilly
parts. At Colgong, Mr. Barnes informed him that many cases of human
beings killed by pards were known in the Bhaugulpore district. At
Seonee we had one which devastated a tract of country extending to
about 18 miles in diameter. He began his work in 1857 by carrying
off a follower of the Thakur of Gurwarra, on whom we were keeping
a watch during the troublous times of the mutiny. My brother-in-law,
Colonel Thomson and I, went after him under the supposition that it
was a tiger that had killed the man, and it was not till we found
the body at the bottom of a rocky ravine that we discovered it was
a pard. During the beat he came out before us, went on, and was turned
back by an elephant and came out again a third time before us; but
we refrained from firing as we expected a man-eating tiger. I left
Seonee for two years to join the Irregular Corps to which I had been
posted, and after the end of the campaign, returned again to district
work, and found that the most dreaded man-eater in the district was
the pard whose life we had spared. There was a curious legend in
connection with him, like the superstitious stories of Wehr wolves
in Northern Europe. I have dealt fully with it in "Seonee," and
Forsyth has also given a version of it in the 'Highlands of Central
India,' as he came to the district soon after the animal was destroyed.
Some of the aborigines of the Satpura Range are reputed to have the
power of changing themselves into animals at will, and back again
into the human form. The story runs, that one day one of these men,
accompanied by his wife, came to a glade in the jungle where some
nilgai were feeding. The woman expressed a wish for some meat, on
which the husband gave her a root to hold, and to give him to smell
on his return. He changed himself into a pard, killed one of the
nilgai, and came bounding back for the root; but the terrified woman
lost her nerve, flung away the charm, and rushed from the place. The
husband hunted about wildly for the root, but in vain; and then
inflamed with rage he pursued her, and tore her to pieces and
continued to wreak his vengeance on the human race. Such was the
history of the man-eating panther of Kahani, as related in the
popular traditions of the country, and certainly everything in the
career of this extraordinary animal tended to foster the unearthly
reputation he had gained. Ranging over a circle, the radius of which
may be put at eighteen miles, no one knew when and where he might
be found. He seemed to kill for killing's sake, for often his
victims--at times three in a single night--would be found untouched,
save for the fatal wound in the throat. The watcher on the high
machaun, the sleeper on his cot in the midst of a populous village,
were alike his prey. The country was demoralized; the bravest hunters
refused to go after him; wild pigs and deer ravaged the fields; none
would dare to watch the growing crops. If it had been an ordinary
panther who would have cared? Had not each village its Shikari? men
who could boast of many an encounter with tiger and bear, and would
they shrink from following up a mere animal? Certainly not; but they
knew the tradition of Chinta Gond, and they believed it. What could
they do?

On the morning of the second day, after leaving Amodagurh, the two
sportsmen neared Sulema, a little village not far from Kahani, out
of which it was reported the panther had taken no less than forty
people within three years. There was not a house that had not mourned
the loss of father, or mother, or brother, or sister, or wife or child,
from within this little hamlet. Piteous indeed were the tales told
as our friends halted to gather news, and the scars of the few who
were fortunate enough to have escaped with life after a struggle with
the enemy, were looked at with interest; but the most touching of
all were the stories artlessly told by a couple of children, one of
whom witnessed the death of a sister, and the other of a brother,
both carried off in broad daylight, for the fell destroyer went
boldly to work, knowing that they were but weak opponents."[13] I
was out several times after this diabolical creature, but without
success; as I sat out night after night I could hear the villagers
calling from house to house hourly, "_Jagte ho bhiya! jagte ho!_"
"Are you awake, brothers? are you awake!" All day long I scoured the
country with my elephant, all night long I watched and waited. My
camp was guarded by great fires, my servants and followers were made
to sleep inside tents, whilst sentries with musket and bayonet were
placed at the doors; but all to no purpose. The heated imagination
of one sentry saw him glowering at him across the blazing fire. A
frantic camp-follower spoilt my breakfast next morning ere I had
taken a second mouthful, by declaring he saw him in an adjoining field.
Then would come in a tale of a victim five miles off during the night,
and then another, and sometimes a third. I have alluded before to
his cowardice; in many cases a single man or boy would frighten him
from his prey. On one occasion, in my rounds after him, I came upon
a poor woman bitterly crying in a field; beside her lay the dead body
of her husband. He had been seized by the throat and dragged across
the fire made at the entrance of their little wigwam in which they
had spent the night, watching their crops. The woman caught hold of
her husband's legs, and, exerting her strength against the
man-eater's, shrieked aloud. He dropped the body and fled, making
no attempt to molest her or her little child of about four years of
age. This man was the third he had attacked that night.

[Footnote 13: 'Seonee.']

He was at last killed, by accident, by a native shikari who, in the
dusk, took him for a pig or some such animal, and made a lucky shot;
but the tale of his victims had swelled over two hundred during the
three years of his reign of terror.


NO. 203. FELIS PANTHERA.
_The Panther_.

NATIVE NAMES.--_Chita_, _Gorbacha_, Hindi; _Beebeea-bagh_,
Mahrathi; _Bibla_, of the Chita-catchers; _Ghur-hay_ or _Dheer-hay_
of the hill tribes; _Kerkal_, Canarese.

HABITAT.--India generally, Burmah and Ceylon, extending also into
the Malayan countries.

[Illustration: _FELIS PANTHERA_ (_From a fine specimen in the
Regent's Park Gardens_.)]

DESCRIPTION.--Much smaller than the last, with comparatively
shorter legs and rounder head; the fur is less bright; the
ground-work often darker in colour, and the rosettes are more
indistinct which is caused by the longer hairs intermingling and
breaking into the edges of the spots; tail long and furry at the end.
According to Temminck the tail is longer than that of the last species,
having 28 caudal vertebrae against 22 of the other; if this be found
to be the normal state, there will be additional grounds for
separating the two.

SIZE.--Head and body, 3 to 3-1/2 feet; tail, 2-1/2 feet; height from
1-1/2 to 2 feet.

This animal is more common than the pard, and it is more impudent
in venturing into inhabited places. This is fortunate, for it is
seldom a man-eater, although perhaps children may occasionally be
carried off. I have before mentioned one which killed and partially
devoured a pony in the heart of a populous town, and many are the
instances of dogs being carried off out of the verandahs of
Europeans' houses. A friend of mine one night being awoke by a piteous
howl from a dog, chained to the centre pole of his tent, saw the head
and shoulders of one peering in at the door; it retreated but had
the audacity to return in a few minutes. Jerdon and other writers
have adduced similar instances. It is this bold and reckless
disposition which renders it easier to trap and shoot. The tiger is
suspicious to a degree, and always apprehensive of a snare, but the
panther never seems to trouble his head about the matter, but walks
into a trap or resumes his feast on a previously killed carcase,
though it may have been moved and handled. There is another thing,
too, which shows the different nature of the beast. There is little
difficulty in shooting a panther on a dark night. All that is
necessary is to suspend, some little distance off, a common earthen
_gharra_ or water pot, with an oil light inside, the mouth covered
lightly with a sod, and a small hole knocked in the side in such a
way as to allow a ray of light to fall on the carcase. No tiger would
come near such an arrangement, but the panther boldly sets to his
dinner without suspicion, probably from his familiarity with the
lights in the huts of villages.

I may here digress a little on the subject of night shooting. Every
one who has tried it knows the extreme difficulty in seeing the sights
of the rifle in a dark night. The common native method is to attach
a fluff of cotton wool. On a moonlight night a bit of wax, with
powdered mica scattered on it, will sometimes answer. I have seen
diamond sights suggested, but all are practically useless. My plan
was to carry a small phial of phosphorescent oil, about one grain
to a drachm of oil dissolved in a bath of warm water. A small dab
of this, applied to the fore and hind sights, will produce two
luminous spots which will glow for about 40 or 50 seconds or a minute.

Dr. Sal Muller says of this species that it is occasionally found
sleeping stretched across the forked branch of a tree, which is not
the case with either the tiger or the pard. According to Sir Stamford
Raffles, the _Rimau-dahan_ or clouded panther (miscalled tiger)
_Felis macrocelis_, has the same habit.

I would remark in conclusion that in the attempt to define clearly
the position of these two animals the following points should be
investigated by all who are interested in the subject and have the
opportunity.

First the characteristics of the skull:--

_viz_.--Length, and breadth as compared with length of each, with
presence or absence of the occipital ridge.

_2ndly_.--Number of caudal vertebrae in the tails of each.

_3rdly_.--Whether in a litter, from one female, cubs of each sort
have been found.


NO. 204. FELIS UNCIA.
_The Ounce or Snow Panther_ (_Jerdon's No. 106_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Iker_, Tibetan; _Sah_, Bhotia; _Phale_, Lepcha;
_Burrel-hay_, Simla hillmen; _Thurwag_ in Kunawur. _The
Snow-Leopard_ of European sportsmen.

HABITAT.--Throughout the Himalayas, and the highland regions of
Central Asia.

[Illustration: _Felis uncia_.]

DESCRIPTION.--Pale yellowish or whitish isabelline, with small
spots on the head and neck, but large blotchy rings and crescents,
irregularly dispersed on the shoulders, sides and haunches; from
middle of back to root of tail a medium irregular dark band closely
bordered by a chain of oblong rings; lower parts dingy white, with
some few dark spots about middle of abdomen; limbs with small spots;
ears externally black; tail bushy with broad black rings.

SIZE.--Head and body about 4 feet 4 inches; tail, 3 feet; height,
about 2 feet.

I have only seen skins of this animal, which is said to frequent rocky
ground, and to kill _Barhel_, _Thar_, sheep, goats, and dogs, but
not to molest man. This species is distinguishable from all the
preceding felines by the shortness and breadth of the face and the
sudden elevation of the forehead--_Gray_. Pupil round--_Hodgson_.


NO. 205. FELIS DIARDII _vel_ MACROCELIS.
_The Clouded Panther_ (_Jerdon's No. 107_).

NATIVE NAMES.--_Tungmar_, Lepcha; _Zik_, Bhotia; _Lamchitta_, of
the Khas tribe (_Jerdon_). _Rimau dahan_ of Sumatra.

HABITAT.--Nepal, Sikim, Assam, Burmah, and down the Malayan
Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo.

[Illustration: _Felis Diardii_.]

DESCRIPTION.--A short-legged long-bodied animal, with a very
elongated skull; the upper can